Archive-Name: movies/tech/part1
Posting-Frequency: monthly
Last-Modified: 6/96
Version: 0.02

          /-----------------------------------------------------------\
          |                   rec.arts.movies.tech                    |
          |             Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)              |
          |                      (with answers)                       |
          |                                                           |
          |                       Part 1 of 4                         |
          |                                                           |
          |                       Version 0.02                        |
          |            (supersedes all previous versions)             |
          |                        June, 1996                         |
          |                                                           |
          |                                                           |
          |              Compiled, Edited, Maintained by              |
          |                     Scott E. Norwood                      |
          |                     snorwood@nyx.net                      |
          \-----------------------------------------------------------/
                      Copyright (C) 1996 by Scott E. Norwood

          This document may be freely distributed by electronic, paper,
          and  other  means, provided  that  it is  distributed in  its
          complete,   unmodified   form   for   non-commercial   and/or
          educational   purposes.    Commercial  use  of  the  material
          contained   herein  is  not  permitted, unless prior  written
          permission  is  obtained from the  copyright  holder.  Others
          who  have  contributed to this  document retain the rights to
          their own contributions (which are noted).

                                   DISCLAIMER:

          The  compiler  of  this  document has attempted to make every
          reasonable effort  to ensure that any  information  contained
          herein  is accurate  and complete.  However, the compiler  is
          unable to assume responsibility, legal or  otherwise, for any
          inaccuracies, errors,  or omissions  relating  to the inform-
          ation contained below.  All of  the information  contained in
          this document is believed by its compiler to  be held  in the
          public  domain.  The  compiler is  not affiliated with any of
          the  companies whose products are mentioned here, nor does he
          necessarily endorse these products. All statements about such
          products  are  for informational  use only.  U.S.  trademarks
          are indicated  by (tm)  where applicable,  and  are used here
          without the permission of their owners.

                    -----------------------------------------

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1.0  Introduction

  1.1   Purpose of rec.arts.movies.tech
  1.2   Purpose of this FAQ list
  1.3   Standards of "netiquette" for news posting
  1.4   Credits
  1.5   Where is the latest version of this FAQ available?
  1.6   What is the best way to print this FAQ?
  1.7   What changes have been made to this FAQ since previous versions?

2.0  Motion Picture Formats (original cinematography)

  2.1   Which film gauges are currently in common usage for original
        cinematography?

    2.1.1   35mm -- Standard Theatrical Gauge
    2.1.2   16mm -- Home Movies/Television/Low-Budget Theatrical
    2.1.3   8mm -- Cheaper Home Movies
    2.1.4   Super 8mm -- Better Home Movies
    2.1.5   65mm -- Better Theatrical Features

  2.2   Which formats are common for 8mm cinematography?

    2.2.1   Regular 8mm/Super 8mm  (standard 8mm/super 8mm frame)

  2.3   Which formats are common for 16mm cinematography?

    2.3.1   16mm  (standard 16mm frame)
    2.3.2   Super 16mm  (HDTV/35mm blowup frame)

  2.4   Which formats are common for 35mm cinematography?

    2.4.1   35mm  (old silent frame)
    2.4.2   35mm  (standard Academy frame)
    2.4.3   35mm Anamorphic  (standard 'wide screen' theatrical frame)
    2.4.4   35mm Vista Vision  (visual effects frame)
    2.4.5   Super 35mm  (production format for release prints of various
            formats)

  2.5   Which formats are common for 65mm cinematography?

    2.5.1   65mm  (standard 65mm theatrical frame)
    2.5.2   65mm  (IMAX (tm)/OMNIMAX (tm))
    2.5.3   65mm  (Showscan (tm))

3.0  Motion Picture Formats (release prints intended for projection)

  3.1   Which film gauges are currently in common usage for release
        prints intended for projection?
  3.2   Why is wide-gauge film manufactured in the 65mm width for motion-
        picture cameras, and in 70mm for release prints?
  3.3   Which formats and aspect ratios are common for 8mm release prints?

    3.3.1   Regular 8mm/Super 8mm
    3.3.2   Regular 8mm/Super 8mm Anamorphic

  3.4   Which formats and aspect ratios are common for 16mm release prints?

    3.4.1   Regular 16mm
    3.4.2   16mm Anamorphic
    3.4.3   Super 16mm

  3.5   Which formats and aspect ratios are common for 35mm release prints?

    3.5.1   35mm Silent Frame
    3.5.2   35mm Academy Frame
    3.5.3   35mm 'Flat' Wide Screen Formats
    3.5.4   35mm Anamorphic Frame
    3.5.5   Projecting Multiple Formats

  3.6   Which formats and aspect ratios are common for 70mm release prints?

    3.6.1   70mm Standard Frame
    3.6.2   70mm IMAX (tm)/OMNIMAX (tm) 15-Perf Frame

4.0  Motion Picture Sound Formats (release prints intended for projection)

  4.1   What analog sound formats are common for 8mm release prints?

    4.1.1   Regular 8mm Magnetic  (monophonic)
    4.1.2   Super 8mm Magnetic  (monophonic or stereo)
    4.1.3   Super 8mm Optical  (monophonic)

  4.2   What analog sound formats are common for 16mm release prints?

    4.2.1   16mm Optical  (monophonic)
    4.2.2   16mm Magnetic  (monophonic)

  4.3   What analog sound formats are common for 35mm release prints?

    4.3.1   35mm Optical  (monophonic, stereo, or Dolby Stereo (tm))
    4.3.2   35mm Magnetic  (four-track stereo)

  4.4   What analog sound formats are common for 70mm release prints?

    4.4.1   70mm Magnetic  (six track stereo)

  4.5   What are the three commonly used digital sound formats for 35mm
        release prints, and how do they work?

    4.5.1   General Information
    4.5.2   Digital Theater Sound (DTS) (tm)
    4.5.3   Sony Dynamic Digital Stereo (SDDS) (tm)
    4.5.4   Dolby (tm) Spectral Recording Digital (SR-D) (tm)

  4.6   Which studios use which formats for digital sound?
  4.7   What methods have been used for digital sound in formats other
        than 35mm?

5.0  Motion Picture Presentation (theatrical projection)

  5.1   What type of projection and sound equipment is commonly used for
        commercial theatrical presentation?

    5.1.1   Projector/Lamphouse
    5.1.2   Sound System

  5.2   What are some specific examples of a common projection setup?
  5.3   What are the differences between xenon and carbon-arc lamphouses?
  5.4   How are 'seamless' manual reel changeovers accomplished?

    5.4.1   Shipping Configurations for 35mm Prints
    5.4.2   Changeover Procedures

  5.5   How does a platter system work?

    5.5.1   Platter Configurations
    5.5.2   Platter Operation

  5.6   How are multiple projectors interlocked to run the same piece of film
        in multiple auditoria?
  5.7   What are the industry standards for image brightness and screen
        reflectivity?
  5.8   What are the industry standards for sound levels in a mono setup?
  5.9   What are the industry standards for sound levels in a Dolby Stereo
        (tm) setup?
  5.10  How does a dual-format (35/70) projector work, and how is the
        changeover made between formats?
  5.11  What are the differences between nitrate-, acetate-, and polyester-
        based print stocks?

    5.11.1   Nitrate Base/Triacetate (Safety) Base
    5.11.2   Polyester Base

  5.12  What is the best way to avoid the static and shedding problems
        common in polyester prints?
  5.13  What precautions are necessary when projecting nitrate prints?
  5.14  What are the proper procedures for print inspection prior to
        showing a film?
  5.15  What other problems are common in film projection, and how does
        one fix them?

6.0  Film Laboratories

  6.1   What are the differences between reversal and negative film,
        and which is the most common?

    6.1.1   Differences Between Reversal and Negative Films
    6.1.2   Uses for Reversal and Negative Films

  6.2   What is a 'one light work print'?  A 'timed work print'?
  6.3   What does a negative cutter do?

    6.3.1   General Information on Negative Conforming
    6.3.2   A & B (& C) Roll Conforming and Printing

  6.4   What is timing/color timing, and how does it affect the look
        of filmed images?
  6.5   What is an 'answer print'?
  6.6   What is an 'interpositive'?  An 'internegative'?
  6.7   What is a 'check print'?
  6.8   What is a 'release print'?
  6.9   What is the difference between release prints made for projection
        with tungsten lamps and release prints made for projection
        with xenon lamps?
  6.10  What is a 'low-contrast print'?
  6.11  What is 'green film'?  Why isn't it green?
  6.12  What are currently the standard reel/can sizes for the various film
        formats?
  6.13  How can I process reversal films at home?

7.0  Film for Videotape and Television (and vice-versa)

  7.1   How is the frame-rate difference worked out when film is displayed
        on television?

    7.1.1   European Television Standard
    7.1.2   U.S./Canada/Japan Television Standards

  7.2   What are the various methods used to display film on television
        or videotape?  Which are the most common?

    7.2.1   Film Chains
    7.2.2   Flying Spot Scanners

  7.3   How are film negatives cut to match an edit done on videotape?
  7.4   How is the sound re-synced to the film to match an edit and mix
        done on videotape?
  7.5   What formats of videotape are most commonly used for film post-
        production?

    7.5.1   Television Films
    7.5.2   Theatrical Films

  7.6   What formats of videotape are most commonly used for television
        broadcast of filmed material?
  7.7   How are 70mm films displayed on television or videotape?
  7.8   How is material originated on videotape transferred to film for
        theatrical projection?  How is the sound synced?

8.0  Opinions

  8.1   What is the most workable method of projecting super-16mm workprint
        with separate fullcoat magnetic soundtrack?

    8.1.1   Double-Band Interlock Projector
    8.1.2   Standard Projector Interlocked with Dubber

  8.2   What is the likely future for 2.5-perf 35mm release prints?
  8.3   Which films are good examples of wide screen composition?
  8.4   Which films are good examples of multi-channel sound mixes?

9.0  Obsolete Film Formats

  9.1   What was 'Cinerama'?  How did it work?  Why did it become
        obsolete?
  9.2   What was 'Techniscope'?  How did it work?  Why did it become
        obsolete?
  9.3   What was 'Ultra Panavision 70 (tm)' a.k.a. 'MGM Camera 65 (tm)'?
        How did it work?  Why did it become obsolete?
  9.4   What was 'CinemaScope (tm) 55'?  How did it work?  Why did it
        become obsolete?

10.0  Miscellaneous

  10.1  What is THX (tm) certification, and what standards are necessary for
        a theater which wishes to obtain it?
  10.2  What equipment is necessary for a 'home cinema' for 16mm and where
        can it be begged for/purchased?
  10.3  What equipment is necessary for a 'home cinema' for 35mm and where
        can it be begged for/purchased?
  10.4  Where can one purchase or rent release prints in 8/16/35/70mm?
  10.5  What are the various processes used for color in motion pictures?
  10.6  What are the various frame rates which have been used for
        motion pictures?
  10.7  What are the three different types of perforations used for
        35mm release prints?
  10.8  What is a 'reverse scanning solar cell' and how does it improve
        sound reproduction?
  10.9  Who is R. Michael Hayes, and why are they saying those things
        about him?
  10.10 Why are 'trailers' called 'trailers' when they are spliced after
        the 'leader' of a movie?
  10.11 What books are useful for one interested in film formats and
        presentation?
  10.12 What magazines and other publications are useful for one interested
        in film formats and presentation?
  10.13 What online resources exist for one interested in film formats
        and presentation?

11.0  Reference Information

  11.1  What are the footage/time conversions for the various film formats?
  11.2  What are the lens focal length/image size conversions for the
        various film formats?

    11.2.1   16mm Chart

  11.3  What are the standard locations for reel-change cue marks on
        U.S. release prints in the various film formats?

                    -----------------------------------------

1.0  Introduction
-----------------

  1.1   Purpose of rec.arts.movies.tech

     This is one of many USENET newsgroups in the rec.arts.movies.*
hierarchy; its purpose is to facilitate the discussion of the many
technical details associated with motion pictures.  Topics often include
questions about projection issues in theaters, film and sound formats and
aspect ratios, equipment used in film production and presentation,
and, occasionally, visual effects used in motion pictures.  This group
is intended for text messages only.  Binaries should be uuencoded
and posted to the appropriate groups within the alt.binaries hierarchy,
or, preferably, made available through the World Wide Web or anonymous FTP.

  1.2   Purpose of this FAQ list

     As is the nature with USENET groups, similar questions and topics are
often raised.  Thus, in order to save network bandwidth (information-carrying
capacity), the time of those who read the groups, and to promote more
interesting discussions, a list of frequently asked questions (FAQs) and
their answers is often assembled, and posted regularly to the newsgroup.
It should be mentioned that the purpose of the FAQ is not to inhibit or
restrict newsgroup discussions, but rather to encourage more enlightening
discussions by freeing the group's readers from the burden of regularly
answering the same or similar questions.

  1.3   Standards of "netiquette" for news posting

     New readers of USENET news would do well to spend a few minutes reading
the information posted in the group news.announce.newusers, as well as
reading the posts made by other readers of rec.arts.movies.tech prior
to posting their own messages to it.  Additionally, it would likely benefit
everyone who reads the group if the few points below were kept in mind
when posting:

     1.  Make subject lines descriptive!  While rec.arts.movies.tech is not
         overflowing with posts, it still saves time for its readers to
         ensure that subject lines are reflective of the content of the
         post.  Don't use "70mm" as a subject head.  Instead, use something
         like "Correct Aspect Ratio for 70mm?".  Don't use "projector,"
         but rather use "FS: Bell and Howell sound super-8 Projector".

     2.  Don't post excessively long messages (see warning about posting
         of binaries above in section 1.1).

     3.  When quoting from someone else's message in a followup post, be
         sure to check that the person whom you're quoting actually wrote
         the material you quote.  Also, try to edit quoted material for
         length (but _never_ content)--don't quote 700 lines of previous
         posts and then type "I agree" at the bottom.  This type of post
         serves the interests of no one.

     4.  Don't post blatantly commercial material, particularly if the
         material does not fall under the charter of rec.arts.movies.tech.
         "Garage Sale"-type posts are considered to be acceptable, as long
         as they are non-commercial in nature, and are not posted regularly.

     5.  Don't type in all caps (LIKE THIS).  Nearly all terminals in use
         today (as well as personal computers) will support lower-case
         letters, which are easier to read for most people.

  1.4   Credits

  [under construction]

     Thanks to the following individuals for reviewing the first edition
of this FAQ, and correcting my numerous errors and omissions:  Andrew
Shepherd <cinema@falcon.cc.ukans.edu>, David Richards <daverich@netcom.com>,
and Scott Marshall <WideNews@aol.com>.  I am duly humbled.  Special thanks
to Ed Inman <edinman@teclink.net> for his great information on home
processing of reversal films (included in the 'Film Laboratories' section).

  1.5   Where is the latest version of this FAQ available?

  [under construction]     

     Currently, draft versions of this document will be posted to
rec.arts.movies.tech as improvements are made.  The current version
will always be available for viewing on the World Wide Web at
http://www.nyx.net/~snorwood/faq.html

     Eventually, I will post this FAQ monthly to rec.arts.movies.tech,
rec.answers, and news.answers; it will also be made available through
anonymous FTP on the various FAQ archive sites.

     I will also send this document by email to anyone who requests it.
Just send your request to the following Internet address: 'snorwood@nyx.net'.
I will send it out as soon as possible.

     Comments, corrections, additions, and suggestions are always encouraged.
Please either post them to rec.arts.movies.tech, or, preferably, email them
directly to me, and I will incorporate them into future versions of this
FAQ.

  1.6   What is the best way to print this FAQ?

     These files are formatted for 80 columns.  This should allow for display
on a standard terminal (such as the DEC VT-100, VT-220, etc., as well as
most personal computers).  For easier reading, it may be downloaded and
printed on a standard 80-column dot-matrix or laser printer (it looks best
at six lines per inch vertical spacing).

     If you are unable to send this file directly to a printer, it may
be loaded into almost any word processor or text editor, and then printed
from within that program.  If a choice of typefaces is offered, be sure to
select one of the 'monospace' variety (e.g.  Courier, Prestige, Monaco,
Fixedsys) to ensure that the ASCII diagrams below are properly reproduced.
Also, be sure that the margins allow for at least 80 characters of text per
line, otherwise weird line wraps will result.

  1.7   What changes have been made to this FAQ since previous versions?

  [under construction]

Version 0.01  (6/7/96)
------------

     (no previous version)

Version 0.02  (6/17/96)
------------

     1.  Record of modifications (this list) begun.

     2.  FAQ broken up into four sections (from the original
         two) in order to accommodate future additions and modifications;
         hopefully, four sections will be enough to accommodate all
         foreseeable changes and additions, as more than four sections
         can be confusing to new readers (who most need to read the FAQ).

     3.  Third hierarchy of section numbering added to many
         sections of information.

     4.  Disclaimer modified slightly, and reformatted to take up
         fewer lines.

     5.  Trademark indications added to trademarked format/process names
         (I know they look silly, but I need to protect myself!).

     6.  Names added to 'Credits' section.

     7.  Numerous corrections/additions/rearrangements/wording
         changes made to entire FAQ.

     8.  ASCII diagrams of film frames 'flipped' to conform to standard
         film-frame diagram format (i.e.  to show what it would look like
         to project a 'complete' film frame onto a large screen).

     9.  Information on home processing of reversal film added.

     10. Various categories relating to obsolete processes have been
         deleted, as they all can be included in the section devoted
         to obsolete formats.

     11. 'Opinions' section substantially reduced, due to liability concerns.

                    -----------------------------------------

2.0  Motion Picture Formats (original cinematography)
-----------------------------------------------------

  2.1   Which film gauges are currently in common usage for original
        cinematography?

    2.1.1   35mm -- Standard Theatrical Gauge

     The standard gauge for theatrical motion pictures is 35mm, which
supposedly originated with an agreement made between Thomas Edison's 
associate, William K. L. Dickson, and George Eastman in the early days
of motion pictures, because the original Kodak (tm) box camera
used film which was 70mm wide, and so the same film could be easily
slit lengthwise and perforated for use in Edison's movie camera.  This
gauge remains the most widely used for theatrical features, and is also
commonly used for television work.

    2.1.2   16mm -- Home Movies/Television/Low-Budget Theatrical

     In the early 1920's, 16mm was introduced by Kodak (tm) for home-movie
use.  Supposedly this width was chosen instead of 17.5mm (half of the
commercial standard) for safety reasons--at the time 35mm stock was
manufactured on a nitrate base, making it extremely flammable.  This, of
course, would be too dangerous for home use, and so 16mm was manufactured
on so-called 'safety film,' which had a non-flammable acetate base.  This
non-even division of 35mm discouraged the cutting of 16mm film from 
dangerous nitrate stock.  Since its early days, 16mm has become the
'jack-of-all-trades' of film formats, finding use for everything from
home movies through medium-budget features.  Most current use is for
television work and low-budget features.

    2.1.3   8mm -- Cheaper Home Movies

     In the 1940's, 8mm was introduced in order to bring home movies to
the masses.  This 'regular 8mm' is just 16mm film which has twice as many
perforations as 16mm.  It is run through an 8mm camera normally, exposing
one half of its width.  The take-up spool then is flipped and the film
is reloaded, so as to run through the camera opposite to its original
direction, exposing the other half of its width.  After the film is
developed at the laboratory, it is slit down the middle and the pieces are
spliced together, resulting in an 8mm film.  Regular 8mm is not commonly
used now, given the superiority of Super 8mm, and the film is difficult to
find now (although it _is_ still available).  Unlike the other major formats
mentioned here, cameras for regular 8mm are no longer manufactured.

    2.1.4   Super 8mm -- Better Home Movies

     In the 1960's, someone figured out that the perforations on 8mm
film could be made smaller in order to allow for a larger image area, and
thus a sharper picture.  This resulted in 'super-8mm' film, which is sold
pre-loaded into plastic cartridges (as opposed to the metal spools of
regular 8mm), which snap into the camera.  Unlike other gauges, the
'pressure plate' (the piece which provides pressure on the back of the film
in the gate area, in order to ensure that the film lies flat when it is
exposed) is plastic and is built into the cartridge.  In other gauges,
it is a (usually) removable (for cleaning) metal plate which is part of
the camera.  Super 8mm is now used mostly by students, those shooting no-
budget films, portions of feature films which demand a super 8mm 'look,'
music videos, and some direct-to-TV/video work.

    2.1.5   65mm -- Better Theatrical Features

     In the late 1950's/early 1960's, when 'wide screen' motion pictures
became popular, a number of 'wide gauge' stocks became available.  These
existed in a number of widths, but eventually 65mm became the standard
film stock for large-format shooting.  This offered a picture of
substantially higher resolution, steadiness, and apparent color saturation
than standard 35mm film.  This format is now used for some theatrical
features, as well as 'special-venue' and 'ride' films (see below).

  2.2   Which formats are common for 8mm cinematography?

     regular 8mm     (camera frame:  .192" x .145")
     super 8mm       (camera frame:  .224" x .163")

    2.2.1  Regular 8mm/Super 8mm  (standard 8mm/super 8mm frame)

     As mentioned above, there are two 'varieties' of 8mm film, both of
which are still in common usage.  Both of these varieties are commonly
shot 'flat' (i.e.  without any 'anamorphic' horizontal compression).

     Several frame rates are used in these formats:  films shot for silent
projection (no sound-on-film) are photographed at 16 frames per second
(fps), 18 fps, or 24 fps.  Films shot for sound-on-film projection run
at 18 fps, or, more commonly, 24 fps.

     Regular 8mm commonly comes in 25' and 50' spools, as well as 100'
spools (although the Bolex regular 8mm is the only camera which takes
the 100' spools).  Super 8mm comes in 50' and, less commonly, 200'
cartridges.  Most cameras are only capable of accepting the 50' cartridge,
though.

regular 8mm film frame:                 super 8mm film frame:
  (note big perforations)                 (note small perforation)

  |                  |               |                  |
  | -------------- O |               | ---------------- |
  | |    Small   |   |               | |     Larger   | |
  | |    Image   |   |               | |     Image    |o| <--- Smaller
  | |    Area    |   |               | |     Area     | |    Perforation
  | -------------- O |               | ---------------- |
  |                  |               |                  |

  |<------ 8mm ----->|               |<------ 8mm ----->|

  2.3   Which formats are common for 16mm cinematography?

     16mm            (camera frame:  .404" x .295")    (standard 16mm frame)
                     (camera frame:  .488" x .295")    (super 16mm frame)

    2.3.1   16mm  (standard 16mm frame)

     Like 8mm/super 8mm, 16mm films are almost always shot 'flat,' as few
anamorphic camera lenses are currently available, although they were
somewhat more common in the 1960's for sophisticated amateurs.  The film
itself has not changed since the format's introduction, and it is almost
always double-perforated (i.e.  it has sprocket holes on both sides), though
few cameras actually require this (the Maurer and the Mitchell 16mm models
do, however).

     The film itself comes either wound tightly around a plastic 'core,'
for loading into a camera magazine (either in a darkroom, or a portable
'changing bag'), or, for 100' and 200' lengths, mounted on small metal
spools (like those for regular 8mm), which can be loaded into the camera
in moderately bright daylight.  Professionals usually use 400' and (rarely)
1200' lengths of the film.  (The Panavision 16 is the only currently-
available camera which will take the 1200' rolls; old newsreel cameras, such
as the Auricon, also can take this large size).

     Films shot in 16mm almost always run at 24 frames per second (fps),
with the exception of many silent home movies which are sometimes shot
at 16 fps.  European television films are photographed at 25 fps to
match the frame rate of the PAL television standard.  Occasionally,
U.S. television films are shot at 29.97 fps or 23.976 fps to match or
nearly match the TV standard, respectively.

    2.3.2   Super 16mm  (HDTV/35mm blowup frame)

     In the 1970's, super 16mm was developed as a filming format primarily
for productions which were to originate on 16mm (supported heavily by
Aaton (tm), the French camera manufacturer), but be "blown up" to
35mm for theatrical release (as few commercial theaters have 16mm
projectors).  The image was made wider, extending into the far edge
of the film, formerly occupied by an extra set of perforations on
camera film or a soundtrack on release prints (camera film for super 16mm
shooting is 'single-perf'--i.e.  it has sprocket holes on only one edge,
with the other edge left for the image).  This provides a higher-
resolution image when the film is blown up to 35mm, because there is a
larger image area, and because there is less cropping of the image to
fit the usual 35mm aspect ratio of 1.85:1.  The disadvantage, though,
is that it is not a projection format, as a single piece of 16mm film
cannot accommodate both the larger image and a soundtrack.

     Some producers are shooting TV shows on super 16mm, with the intent
of re-transferring the negatives to videotape when and if high definition
television (HDTV) comes into widespread use.  The 1.66:1 projection aspect
ratio is very close to the proposed U.S. HDTV standard of 1.77:1, and so
super 16mm films could be shown with little cropping, whereas a 1.37:1
picture would either have the top and bottom edges cropped, or the sides
masked inward to fit on an HDTV screen (yielding a very small picture).
Presumably, then, super 16mm is a way for producers worried about upcoming
technological changes in television to 'future proof' a television show, so
that it can be presented in any form, with the highest quality images allowed
by the format chosen for future TV receivers.

16mm film frame:                   super 16mm film frame:

  |                  |               |                  |
  | O--------------O |               |-----------------O|
  | |     Image    | | Image area -->|      Image      ||
  | |     Area     | | extends to    |      Area       ||
  | O--------------O |    edge of    |-----------------O|
  |                  |     film.     |                  |

  |<----- 16mm ----->|               |<----- 16mm ----->|

  2.4   Which formats are common for 35mm cinematography?

     35mm            (camera frame:  .980"  x .735")   (silent frame)
                     (camera frame:  .864"  x .630")   (Academy frame)
                     (camera frame:  .980"  x .735")   (Super 35)
                     (camera frame:  1.485" x .991")   (Vista Vision)
                     (camera frame:  .864"  x .732")   (anamorphic frame)

    2.4.1   35mm  (old silent frame)

     Early 35mm films were all shot with the silent frame prior to the
advent of sound-on-film.  When sound was first introduced, a variety of
odd aspect ratios (including an almost 1:1 square picture) were considered,
as the image area had to be narrowed in order to leave space for the
soundtrack.  Silent 35mm films were shot at roughly 16 frames per second
(fps), using hand-cranked cameras and projectors.  In practice, speed varied
substantially even throughout a single roll.

    2.4.2   35mm  (standard Academy frame)

     In order to maintain a similar projected aspect ratio for both
sound and silent films, the Academy frame was introduced, and has since
become standard.  It used the greatest possible width (allowing for
soundtrack space on prints), and reduced the height somewhat in order to
make the image retain a 1.37:1 projected aspect ratio.  Earlier silent
prints were projected in a 1.33:1 ratio.

     During the 'wide screen' craze of the late 1950's and early 1960's,
anamorphic cinematography (a.k.a. 'CinemaScope (tm),' and, later,
'Panavision (tm)') became commonplace.  In order to advertise their films
as being 'wide screen' movies, many producers who had a large collection
of yet-to-be-released 1.37:1 films just cropped off the top and bottom
edges of the frame (including titles and other important elements),
leaving a 1.85:1 ratio movie.  Later, continuing through the present,
non-anamorphic ('flat') films were composed to fit on a 1.85:1 screen.
These films, however, are still photographed with an Academy camera
frame, although the camera's viewfinder usually does not show the top
and bottom edges.  Occasionally, a 'hard matte' is used in the camera
or printer, masking off the top and bottom edges of the frame.

     Nearly all 35mm film is shipped wound around plastic cores, and it
comes in 200', 400', and 1000' lengths.  Small 100' metal spools are
also available, for use in small windup cameras like the Bell and Howell
Eyemo.

     Most 35mm sound films are shot at 24 fps, as the faster frame rate
both improves the sound quality (as the film runs faster over the sound
head, and can hold more information per inch, just as tape recordings made
at faster speeds sound better than ones made at slow speeds), and makes
the lip-sync look more realistic.  Like 16mm, though, some European
television films are shot at 25 fps, to match the TV frame rate, and
some US television films are shot at 29.97 or 23.976 fps, to match or
nearly match the U.S. TV frame rate, respectively.

    2.4.3   35mm Anamorphic  (standard 'wide screen' theatrical frame)

     As mentioned above, during the late 1950's and early 1960's, in order
to compete with television, the motion picture industry developed a number
of systems to achieve a wider aspect ratio than previously used.  Besides
simply cropping off the top and bottom of the frame, the most successful
such system was 'anamorphic cinematography,' initially introduced as  
'CinemaScope (tm)' with _The_Robe_, in 1953.  This process involves photo-
graphing a film with a lens which has an anamorphic element in it.  This
element 'squeezes' the image horizontally by a factor of 2x.  The
'squeezed' image fills a large space on the negative, but, when
'unsqueezed' upon projection, yields an image with a wide aspect
ratio.  This ratio actually varies slightly depending upon the exact
projector mask which is used, as well as the sound format.

     The disadvantage to shooting in anamorphic is usually that the lenses
used introduce weird types of distortion and lack the depth of field
(front to rear sharpness) of standard 'spherical' lenses.  For example,
a night scene in a film might contain out-of-focus points of light in
the background; if they were filmed with spherical lenses, the lights would
appear to be circular, but would appear to be vertical ellipses if they
were filmed with anamorphic lenses.

     Anamorphic cinematography is still in common usage for major
theatrical films, and is often indicated by the phrase 'filmed in Panavision
(tm)' (if the lenses/cameras were made by Panavision (tm)), which has
displaced 'CinemaScope (tm)' as the usual term for this process, although
many people still refer to anamorphic films as ''scope' films.  It is
worth noting, though, that companies other than Panavision (tm) manufacture,
rent, and sell anamorphic camera lenses.  Also, the phrase 'filmed with
Panavision (tm) cameras and lenses' indicates that Panavision (tm) gear was
used, but the film is not in anamorphic (they rent spherical [non-
anamorphic] lenses, too).

    2.4.4   35mm Vista Vision  (visual effects frame)

     During the 'wide screen' heyday, Paramount developed the 'Vista Vision'
format, which involved running the film through the camera _sideways_,
exposing an image eight perforations wide.  This negative is then
optically printed onto a standard release print, of various aspect ratios.
This format is now rarely used for feature film cinematography, although it
is often used for background plates and other visual effect scenes which
benefit from the extra negative area and resulting high resolution of that
format, as the negative contains an area which is four times that of
a standard 1.85:1 projected frame.

     The actual prints made from this format (at the time when it was common
for features) were intended to be projected in a variety of aspect ratios.
Common ones include:  1.66:1, 1.85:1, and 2:1.  Other aspect ratios
were used for projection as well, but never gained wide acceptance.

    2.4.5   Super 35mm  (production format for release prints of various
            formats)

     A recent development has been 'super 35mm,' which, like super 16mm,
extends the photographed image out into the soundtrack area (it uses
the same frame area as old silent movies), and must be optically printed
onto print stock in order to make projection prints.  The possible
advantage to this is that it allows a cinematographer to use 'spherical'
(standard) lenses to shoot a film which may eventually be printed in
anamorphic.  Spherical lenses are less expensive to rent than anamorphics,
and do not have the characteristic optical distortion which is common to
anamorphic lenses.  The disadvantage is that the images are often grainier
than those originally shot with anamorphic lenses, and the optical printing
stage is expensive and adds its own type of distortion.

     Super 35mm is also used by some directors and cinematographers because
they feel that it allows for a less problematic full-screen television
version of the film.  Because super 35mm negatives carry more picture than
will eventually be projected, a nicer-looking TV version of the film can be
created. This works by manipulating the area of the film which is
displayed on the television screen, using the extra picture at the
top and bottom of the frame to 'fill in' areas which would ordinarily
lack a portion of the image, when the TV frame must center on a specific
area at the edge of the theatrical frame.

     Super 35mm prints can be 'extracted' from various portions of the
negative.  A 'top-extraction' or 'common headroom' extraction is made
such that the very top frameline of the super 35mm negative corresponds
to the very top frameline of the print.  A 'symmetrical' or 'center-
extraction' print is made such that equal top and bottom areas are
cropped off of the super 35mm negative.  The viewfinder markings are
adjusted to match the chosen format.

     Interestingly, super 35mm is nearly identical to the 'Superscope 235'
process used in by RKO Pictures.  The first film to use this format
was _Run_for_the_Sun_ in 1956.  This was photographed using almost the same
frame area as Super 35mm, and then optically printed onto CinemaScope (tm)
release prints, leaving extra image area at the top and bottom of the frame
for TV prints.

35mm film frame:                   35mm film frame:
  (Academy ratio)                    (1.85:1 ratio)
                                     (note inefficient use of negative space,
                                      which is photographed in the camera,
                                      but not projected)

  |                        |         |                        |
  |O   -------------------O|         |O    (unused space)    O|
  |    |                 | |         |    ------------------- |
  |O   |       Image     |O|         |O   |      Image      |O|
  |    |                 | |         |    |      Area       | |
  |O   |       Area      |O|         |O   |                 |O|
  |    |                 | |         |    ------------------- |
  |O   -------------------O|         |O    (unused space)    O|
  |                        |         |                        |

  |<-------- 35mm -------->|         |<-------- 35mm -------->|


super 35mm/silent film frame:      35mm anamorphic film frame:

  |                        |         |                        |
  |O----------------------O|         |O   -------------------O|
  | |                    | |         |    |                 | |
  |O|        Larger      |O|         |O   |    'Squeezed'   |O|
  | |        Image       | |         |    |      Image      | |
  |O|        Area        |O|         |O   |      Area       |O|
  | |                    | |         |    |                 | |
  |O----------------------O|         |O   -------------------O|
  |                        |         |                        |

  |<-------- 35mm -------->|         |<-------- 35mm -------->|


Vista Vision film frame:

  --------------------------   ---
    O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O     /|\
    |--------------------|      |
    |     Very Large     |      |
    |                    |     35mm
    |     Image Area     |      |
    |--------------------|      |
    O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O     \|/
  --------------------------   ---

NOTE:  The blank space to the left of the image area in the above diagrams
       (except for Vista Vision and super 35mm) is reserved for a soundtrack
       which is printed on release prints.

  2.5   Which formats are common for 65mm cinematography?

     65mm            (camera frame:  2.066" x .906")   (theatrical frame)
                     (camera frame:  2.772" x 2.072")  (IMAX (tm) frame)

    2.5.1   65mm  (standard 65mm theatrical frame)

     During the wide-format revolution (early 1950's), a number of aspect
ratios were used for 70mm prints, printed from the same format of negative.
The 65mm film frame is five perforations high (rather than four for 35mm),
and is capable of accepting a wider frame than 35mm when photographed
'flat.'  While there have been attempts at fitting anamorphic lenses onto
65mm cameras (such as 'Ultra Panavision (tm) 70'/'MGM Camera 65 (tm)'),
none are presently in use.  While 65mm was once a popular shooting
format, it is no longer in wide usage, with "Far and Away" being the last
major feature to use this film gauge.

     There seems to be somewhat of a potential revival of this format,
with the soon-to-be released _Hamlet_, and several restoration prints
as well.  It is hoped that the new digital sound formats will eliminate
the magnetic striping used in the past for soundtracks, which contributed
greatly to the cost of this format.  Also, the potential exhibition market
for this format is larger than it has been in the past, since many
of the recently-built multiplex theaters have at least one screen which
is capable of showing 70mm, which was often originally installed in
order to show blowup prints of 35mm with the six-track stereo sound
which only the 70m print could provide (prior to the advent of digital).

    2.5.2   65mm  (IMAX (tm)/OMNIMAX (tm))

     The 65mm format is gaining popularity in the growing 'ride film'
industry and for 'special venue' production in various formats like IMAX (tm)
and IMAX DOME (tm) (formerly known as OMNIMAX (tm)), which use film frames
of fifteen perforations wide.  The film is run through the camera and
projector sideways, just like Vista Vision, at fifteen perforations
of length per frame.  IMAX (tm) has a projected aspect ratio of about
1.43:1, but uses a _very_ large screen to achieve its effect.  IMAX
DOME (tm)/OMNIMAX (tm) films are shot with the same cameras and lenses,
but are projected onto a domed screen through a fisheye lens.  The screen
itself is tilted somewhat toward the audience, which sits in reclining
chairs, arranged in a steeply-sloping arrangement.

     There is a similar process to IMAX (tm), known as IMAX-HD (tm), which
uses the same setup, running at 48 frames per second, in order to achieve
a more life-like, better-looking picture.

     It is worth noting that none of the formats yet designed by the
Canadian IMAX (tm) company is designed to carry a soundtrack on the
print.  In older setups, the sound comes from a magnetic tape which is
run on a dubber-type device, interlocked to the speed of the projector
(and if the power fluctuates significantly during a show, sync is lost).
Newer installations also have the capability of running the sound off of
a CD-ROM disk (as with DTS (tm)), driven by a timecode on the film.

    2.5.3   65mm  (SHOWSCAN (tm))

     SHOWSCAN (tm) is somewhat of a competitive format to IMAX (tm) and
IMAX-HD (tm), conceived and supported primarily by Douglas Trumbull and
his Showscan Corporation.  It uses 65mm film running vertically at a rate
of 60 frames per second (fps), five perforations per frame, whereas
standard IMAX (tm), like almost every other format, runs at 24 fps.
Supposedly this could give a clearer picture with fewer 'strobing'-type
artifacts of the usual double-bladed shutter used for 35mm and standard
65mm (Showscan (tm) and IMAX-HD (tm) both use projector shutters which show
each image only once) and other shortcomings of the 24 fps standard,
in which the projector normally shows each frame _twice_, which reduces
apparent flicker somewhat.  Formats using the higher frame rate do not
appear to flicker anyway, and thus do not need this 'fix.'

                    -----------------------------------------
                                END OF FAQ PART 1
                    -----------------------------------------
