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               Frequently Asked Questions on Soc.Culture.Jewish
                    Part 3: Torah and Halachic Authority
         [Last Change: $Date: 1996/06/17 19:14:31 $ $Revision: 1.3 $]
                    [Last Post: Sat Jun  3 11:07:05 1995]

   This posting is an attempt to answer questions that are continually
   asked on soc.culture.jewish. It was written by cooperating laypeople
   from the various Judaic movements. You _should not_ make any
   assumption as to accuracy and/or authoritativeness of the answers
   provided herein. In all cases, it is always best to consult a
   competent authority--your local rabbi is a good place to start.
   
   The deceased sages described within are of blessed memory, (assume a
   _Z"L_ or _ZT"L_ after their names) and the sages alive today should
   live to see long and good days (assume _SHLITA_). May Hashem grant
   complete recovery to the ill. Individual honorifics are omitted.
   
   The FAQ was produced by a committee and is a cooperative work. The
   contributors never standardized on transliteration scheme from Hebrew,
   Aramaic, Yiddish, or Ladino to English. As a result, the same original
   word might appear with a variety of spellings. This is complicated by
   the fact that there are regional variations in the pronunciation of
   Hebrew. In some places, the common spelling variations are mentioned;
   in others--not. We hope that this is not too confusing.
   
   In general, throughout this FAQ, North American (US/Canada) terms are
   used to refer to the movements of Judaism. Outside of North American,
   Reform is Progressive or Liberal Judaism; Conservative is Reform or
   Masorti, and Orthodoxy is often just "Judaism". Even with this, there
   are differences in practice, position, and ritual between US/Canada
   Reform and other progressive/liberal movements (such as UK
   Progressive/ Liberal), and between US/Canada Conservative and the
   conservative/Masorti movement elsewhere. Where appropriate, these
   differences will be highlighted.
   
   The goal of the FAQ is to present a balanced view of Judaism; where a
   response is applicable to a particular movement only, this will be
   noted. Unless otherwise noted or implied by the text, all responses
   reflect the traditional viewpoint.
   
   This list should be used in conjunction with the Soc.Culture.Jewish
   reading lists. Similar questions can be found in the books referenced
   in those lists.

   Reproduction of this posting for commercial use is subject to
   restriction. See Part 1 for more details.

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Subject: ORGANIZATION

   This portion of the FAQ contains answers to the following questions:

   Section 3. Torah
    1. What is the Written Law? 
    2. What are the books of the Jewish Bible (Tanakh)? 
    3. Why, in the Tanakh, does G-d have so many Names? 
    4. Who wrote the Torah? 
    5. What is the Oral Law? 
    6. How was the Oral Law passed down? 
    7. What is the Great Assembly 
    8. Who are the Zugot (pairs)? 
    9. What is the Mishna? 
   10. What is the relationship between the Mishna and the Torah? 
   11. What are the Orders of the Mishna? 
   12. What is the Tosefta? 
   13. What is the relationship between the Tosefta and the Mishna? 
   14. What is the Gemara and what is the Talmud? 
   15. What is the Talmud? 
   16. What is Talmud Yerushalmi? 
   17. What is Talmud Bavli? 
   18. What is Rashi's commentary on the Talmud? 
   19. What is the Tosafot? 
   20. Who wrote the Tosafot?
   21. What is the relationship of the Tosefta to the Talmuds? 
   22. What are Baraitot? 
   23. What are the extra-canonical (minor) tractates? 
   24. What is a Midrash?
   25. What are Halakhic (or Tannaitic) Midrashim?
   26. What are the main Halakhic Midrashim?
   27. What are the main Exegetical Midrashim?
   28. What are the main Homiletic Midrashim?
   29. What are the Midrashim on the Five Megillot (aka The So-Called
       Rabbot)? 
   30. What are some other important Haggadic works?
   31. What is the Sefer Yetzirah (The Book of Creation)?
   32. What is Sefer haBahir, The Bahir (The Book of Illumination)?
   33. What is The Zohar?
   34. What are the Major Codes of Jewish Law?
   35. What is the Rif (Hilkhot of Rav Alfassi)? 
   36. What is the Mishneh Torah (Yad Ha-Hazaqah , Sefer Mehoqeq)? 
   37. What is the Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The Semag)? 
   38. What is the Arba'ah Turim (The Tur , The Four Rows)? 
   39. What is the Shulkhan Arukh? 
   40. What is the Hamappah of Rabbi Moshe Isserles?
   41. What is the Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh? 
   42. What is the Mishnah Berurah? 
   43. What Codes of Jewish Law Are Used by Non-traditional Jewish
       Movements?
       
   Section 4. Halachic Authority
    1. What is "Halacha"? How is it determined? 
    2. In Orthodox Judaism, what are the levels of halacha? 
    3. In Orthodox Judaism, what are the different rabbinic eras? 
    4. How can differing halachic rulings all be considered valid? 
    5. How does the Conservative movement deal with Halachic questions? 
    6. What is the difference between two Orthodox rabbis who disagree
       and an Orthodox and a Reform who disagree?
    7. Who is RAMBAM that is mentioned and what are his 13 principles 
    8. Who was Rashi? 
    9. Who was the Ramban? 
   10. What is Kabbalah and how can I learn about it? 
   11. Who is allowed to study Kabbalah? 
       


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Subject: What is the Written Law?

   The Written Law consists of the books of the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh.
   It should be noted that the term "Bible" is more commonly used by
   non-Jews, as are the terms "Old Testament" and "New Testament". The
   appropriate term for Jews to use for the Hebrew Bible is "Tanakh".
   Tanakh is an acronym for Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.
   
   The Torah is also known as the Chumash, Pentateuch, or Five Books of
   Moses. The word 'Torah' has the following meanings:
    1. A scroll made from kosher animal parchment, with the entire text
       of the Five Books of Moses written in it by a sofer [ritual
       scribe]. This is the most limited definition.
    2. More often, this term means the text of the Five Books of Moses,
       written in _any_ format, whether Torah scroll, paper back book,
       CD-ROM, sky-writing or any other media.
       
       Any printed version of the Torah (with or without commentary) can
       be called a Chumash or Pentateuch. However, one _never_ refers to
       a Torah Scroll as a Chumash!
    3. The term 'Torah' can mean the entire corpus of Jewish law! This
       includes the Written and the Oral Law, which includes the Mishna,
       the Midrash, the Talmud, and even later day legal commentaries.
       This definition of Torah is probably the most common among
       Orthodox Jews. Usually you can figure out which definition is
       being used by the context.
       

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Subject: What are the books of the Jewish Bible (Tanakh)?

   Again, note that "Bible" is more commonly used by non-Jews, as are the
   terms "old testament" and "new testament", although "scripture" is a
   synonym used by both Jews and non-Jews. The appropriate term to use is
   Tanakh. This word is derived from the Hebrew letters of the three
   parts that make it up:
   
   _T__orah_:
          Books of Genesis (B'reishis), Exodus (Sh'mos), Leviticus
          (Vayikra), Numbers(Bamidbar), and Deuteronomy (D'varim).
          
   _N__'viim (Prophets)_:
          Books of Joshua, Judges, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, II
          Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah,
          Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habukkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
          and Malachi. (The last twelve are sometimes grouped together as
          "Trei Asar." ["Twelve"])
          
   _K__'Tuvim (Writings)_:
          Books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth,
          Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel (although not all
          that is included in the Christian Canon), Ezra and Nehemiah, I
          Chronicles, and II Chronicles.
          
   It should be noted that the breaking of Samuel (Shmuel), Kings
   (Melachim), and Chronicles (Divrei hayamim) into two parts is strictly
   an artifact of the Christian printers who first issued the books. They
   were too big to be issued as single volumes. Because every one
   followed these de facto standards, the titles of Volume 1 and Volume 2
   were attached to the names. The division of the Tanach into chapters
   was also done by medieval Christians, and only later adopted by Jews.
   
   Many Christian Bibles have expanded versions of several of these books
   (Ester, Ezra, Daniel, Jeremiah and Chronicles) inlcuding extra
   material that is not accepeted as canonical in Judaism. This extra
   material was part of the ancient Greek translation of the Tanakh, but
   was never a part of the official Hebrew Tanakh. Jews regard this extra
   material as apocryphal. Among Christians, there is a difference of
   opinion. Catholics regard this material as canonical, while many
   Protestant sects regard this material as Apocrypha. What is and is not
   regarded as Apocrypha varies among the many Christian sects. Some of
   the most famous Apocryphal stories are closely associated with the
   book of Daniel, and indeed are printed as part of that book in some
   Chrisitian Bibles. These stories include: Susan and the Eldars, The
   Song of the Three Children, and Bel and the Dragon.

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Subject: Why, in the Tanakh, does G-d have so many Names?

   Traditional Jews answer that each name represents a different aspect
   of G-d, similar (l'havdil) to the way the U.S. President is known as
   "President," "Commander-in-Chief," "Chief Executive," or "Mr.
   So-and-so" depending upon the role he's playing at the moment.
   
   ("L'havdil" denotes that the writer acknowledges a distinction between
   the sacred and the secular.)

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Subject: Who wrote the Torah?

   Ah, yet another _easy_ question. :-)
   
   The traditional view is that G-d gave the Jewish people the entire
   Torah; hence the Torah is the word of G-d. As described above, the
   Torah consists of a written and an oral portion (although much of the
   oral portion is now written down). Of the written portion:
   
     * The first five books (Pentateuch, Chumash) were dictated by G-d to
       Moses, while Moses was in a conscious and aware state.
     * N'viim (the Prophetic writings) were transmitted by G-d to the
       prophets by various means (such as by a dream or vision) and
       transcribed by the prophet in his (or her) own style and wording.
       G-d communicated with all prophets (except Moses) through dreams
       or visions. These writings are considered a level "below" that of
       Moses. Specific laws are not derived from the Prophets, except
       through examples of how a mitzvah was actually performed. There
       were many more prophets in the history of Israel than are recorded
       in the Neviim. See Section 12.11 "Who were the prophets?" (in Part
       6 of the FAQ)
     * K'Tuvim (Sacred Writings) were the result of "Ruach HaKodesh"
       (roughly: "Divine Inspiration"), which is one level below
       "prophecy". Visions from the writings are more mystical and may be
       complete allegory. Unlike prophecy, they do not have to come true.
       
       The Rambam defines a number of different "levels" of prophecy
       (based on the method through which the prophet received the
       message and the clarity with which he/she received it) and points
       out that they do not have to function on the same level at all
       times. For example, many people include Daniel among the prophets
       while his book is in K'Tuvim. Other examples are King David and
       Tehillim or Jeremiah and Eichah (Lamentations).
       
   The Liberal movements hold less with the notion of the Torah being the
   actual word of G-d, and more with the notion of the Torah being of
   divine inspiration, written in the language and context of its time.
   
   The Conservative movement teaches that the Torah is not one long quote
   from God, but rather is a human document that was written in response
   God's revelation of himself to us at Mount Sinai. Within the
   Conservative movement are basically two schools of thought with
   regards to the content of Revelation:
     * Rabbi Solomon Schechter is a good example of the traditionalists,
       who explicitly taught that God not only revealed his existence,
       but God also presented Israel with specific ideas and
       commandments, although the form in which these were given is
       something beyond what language can describe. Whether or not
       'words' were used to convey ideas is irrelevant: What is relevant
       is that meaning was conveyed. Thus, the text of our Torah is a
       record of a human response to the Divine commandments.
     * Rabbi Elliot Dorf is a good example of the modernists, who
       explicitly teach that God did not reveal specific ideas or
       commandments in any propositional form. Rather, God revealed his
       existence, but did not impart any propositional content to Moses
       or the later Prophets. Instead, the Torah is a literary document
       that was produced as a result of Israel's encounter with the
       Divine. Thus, any laws contained within it can only be considered
       as semi- Divine in origin, as they do not express God's will, but
       rather express our best attempt at understanding what God wants of
       us.
       
   Reform Judaism uses the idea of progressive relevation. The Torah may
   be the product of divine inspiration, but it was written in the
   language and context of its time, and must be continually
   reinterpreted into today's language and context.
   
   Reconstructionist Jews believe that the Torah was not inspired by God
   in any way and is more the folklore of the Jewish people, albeit a
   folklore that is of the greatest importance. However, they do claim
   that the traditional mitzvot in the Oral and Written law are more or
   less binding, but for reasons of cultural significance only. It should
   be noted that some of today's new Reconstructionist rabbis are
   publicly questioning this theology, and our adopting a more
   traditional stance, although this trend has not yet made any real
   inroads among its laity.

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Subject: What is the Oral Law?

   The Torah makes it clear that it was being transmitted side by side
   with an oral tradition. Many terms and definitions used in the written
   law are totally undefined. Many fundamental concepts such as shekhita
   (slaughtering of animals in a kosher fashion), divorce and the rights
   of the firstborn are all assumed as common knowledge by text, and are
   not elaborated. The term "oral law" thus reflects the knowledge about
   how to fulfill the laws and regulations of Torah that was transmitted
   orally, from generation to generation. The Oral Law can be thought of
   as a body of jurisprudence and procedure that accompanies the statutes
   of the Written Law. It is believed to have been passed down from the
   time of Moses, restored after the first exile by Ezra and Nehemiah,
   and finally written down by the academies at Yavne and in the Galilee
   in the two generations following the destruction of the Second Temple
   in 70 CE. It consists of specific interpretations and elaborations of
   the Written Law, and some commentary on the principles by which the
   Written Law can be expounded.
   
   There are Jews called Karaites, recognized by the state of Israel as
   100% Jewish but heretical, who reject the Oral Law, as did the
   Sadducees of the time of the Second Temple. One objection to their
   `purism' is that they have been forced by practical necessity to
   develop interpretations and methods of textual analysis of their
   own---you simply cannot have law without jurisprudence. This being the
   case, most traditional Jews accept the authority of the Oral Law that
   has come down to us as (at the very least) the closest we can come to
   Torah from Mount Sinai.

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Subject: How was the Oral and Written passed down to us?

   Prior to the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE, the law was
   in the hands of the prophets (nevi'im) and priests (Levites). When the
   land of Israel was under Persian rule, a major change took place with
   the return of the prophet Ezra to the Jewish homeland. The
   responsibilities of teaching and religious leadership now rested in
   the hands of the scholars, called soferim (scribes).

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Subject: What is the Great Assembly (Anshe Knessest HaGedolah)?

   According to traditional Jewish historiography, this was an assembly
   of 120 rabbis that ruled in the period after the time of the prophets
   up to the time of the development of rabbinic Judaism in 70 CE. They
   bridge a period of about 2 centuries. The tradition teaches that they
   redacted the books of Ezekiel, the twelve minor prophets (The Trei
   Asar), and the books of Daniel and Ester. They also composed the
   Shemonah Esrah, the standing prayer (Amidah) of 18, later 19, prayers
   that is still recited by Jews today. They canonized the Tanakh (Hebrew
   Bible). Most importantly, they enacted a democratization of Jewish
   education, making the Torah the possession of all, instead of just the
   priestly class.
   
   Historically, the Great Assembly described in Nehemiah 8-10 was a
   public assembly of Jews who returned to Israel after the exile in
   Babylonia. In this gathering the leaders and people of Israel
   rededicated themselves to the Torah as their inheritance and code of
   law.

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Subject: Who are the Zugot (Pairs)?

   After the relative calmness of the period of Persian rule, the Greek
   occupied Eretz Yisrael. For over a century the land was the
   battlefield for warring armies of the Ptolemies and Seleucids. As a
   result, the Jewish homeland was politically, economically, and
   spiritually torn apart. During these times, Jewish leadership was in
   the hands of the Zugot.
   
   The term 'Zugot' refers to the two heads of the Sanhedrin (Great
   Assembly). The Sanhedrin was the successor to the Great Assembly, and
   it functioned as the legislative body of the Jewish people. At the
   head of the Sanhedrin was the Nasi (President) and second to him was
   the Av Bet Din (Father of the Assembly. For a period of about two
   hundred years, these Zugot were the spiritual guides of Jewish life
   and the transmitters of the Oral Law. These Zugot were:
     * Yose ben Yoezer of Sereda, Yose ben Yohanan
     * Yehoshua ben Perahyah, Mattai (or Nittai) or Arbel
     * Yehudah ben Tabbai, Simeon ben Shetah
     * Shemayah, Abtalion
     * Hillel the Elder, Shammai
       

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Subject: What is the Mishna?

   The Hebrew verb 'shanah' literally means 'to repeat [what one was
   taught] and is used to mean 'to learn'. The term 'Mishna' basically
   means the entire body of Jewish religious law that was passed down and
   developed before 200 CE, when it was finally redacted by Rabbi Yehudah
   haNasi (Judah the Prince). He is usually simply referred to as
   'Rabbi'.
   
   Prior to the time of Rabbi, all Jewish Law was transmitted orally; It
   was expressly forbidden to write and publish the Oral Law, as any
   writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and
   abuse. However, after great debate, this restriction was lifted when
   it became apparent that it was the only way to insure that the law
   could be preserved. To prevent the material from being lost, Rabbi
   took up the redaction of the Mishna. He did not do this at his own
   discretion, but rather examined the tradition all the way back to the
   Great Assembly. Some of tractates preceded him; these he merely
   supplemented.
   
   During this time period (around 200 CE) the Mishna, as such, was never
   published. Instead the main study of Jewish law was conducted in
   memorized form, except for private letters and notes.
   
   The Mishna consists of six orders (sedarim). This explains the
   traditional name for the Talmud as 'Shas'. 'Shas' is simply an
   abbreviation of shishah sedarim, six orders'. Each of the six orders
   contains between 7 and 12 tractates, called 'masekhot'. Each masekhot
   is divided into smaller units called 'mishnayot'.

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Subject: What is the relationship between the Mishna and the Torah?

   The Mishna contains the detailed instructions necessary for following
   the rules that were merely outlined in the Torah.
   
   Which is a subset of which? Consider that although the basic laws of
   Judaism were revealed/developed simultaneously, only the basic mitzvot
   (without instructions on how to fulfill them) were originally written
   down. Although the Mishna was written centuries later, they are both
   of equal stature. However, because the Mishna includes most the laws
   of the Torah--and presents additional information---one could say that
   for practical purposes the Torah is a subset of the Mishna. Note that
   the Mishna does not quite cover all the laws in the Torah. Omissions
   include the laws of Mezuzot and the Priestly benedictions.
   
   When one gets to the Talmud, one sees that the Mishna is a subset of
   the Talmud, as the Talmud includes practically all of the Mishna as
   well as additional information.

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Subject: What are the Orders of the Mishna? 1. First Order: Zeraim (Seeds).
         11 tractates. This order deals with agricultural laws and prayers 2.
         Second Order: Mo'ed (Festival Days). 12 tractates. This order
         pertains to the laws of the Sabbath and the Festivals. 3. Third
         Order: Nashim (Women). 7 tractates. This order concerns marriage and
         divorce. 4. Fourth Order: Neziqin (Damages). 10 tractates. This
         order deals with civil and criminal law. 5. Fifth Order: Qodashim
         (Holy things). 11 tractates. This order involves sacrificial rites,
         the Temple, and the dietary laws. 6. Sixth order: Toharot (Purity).
         12 tractates. This order pertains to ritual and the laws of family
         purity.


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Subject: What is the Tosefta?

   The Mishna is basic compilation of the Oral Law, and was written down
   around 200 CE. However there is another compilation of Oral Law from
   that time period--the Tosefta. Rashi (in his commentary on BT
   Sanhedrin 33a) writes that the Mishna was redacted by Rabbi Judah
   Ha-Nasi in consultation with members of the Academy, while the Tosefta
   was edited by Rabbis Hiyya and Oshaiah on their own, thus the Tosefta
   is less authoritative. Basically, the Tosefta is a supplement to the
   Mishna.
   
   The word 'tosefta' means 'supplement'. The Tosefta is a Halakhic work
   which corresponds in structure almost exactly to the Mishna, with the
   same divisions for sedarim (orders) and masekhot (tractates). It is
   mainly written is Mishnaic Hebrew, with a few Aramaic sentences.

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Subject: What is the relationship between the Tosefta and the Mishna?

   The Tosefta was written shortly after the Mishna was redacted, and
   seems to act as a supplement to it. It extensively quotes most of the
   Mishna. The Tosefta offers author's names for laws that are anonymous
   in the Mishna; It augments the Mishna with additional glosses and
   discussions.
   
   The Tosefta functions as a commentary on unquoted Mishnaic material;
   It offers additional haggadic and midrashic material, and it sometimes
   contradicts the Mishna in deciding Halakha, or in declaring in whose
   name a law was given.

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Subject: What is the Gemara and what is the Talmud?

   The term 'gemara' means addition; The gemara is an addition to the
   Mishna. Interestingly, although there is only one Mishna, there are
   _two_ gemaras, each developed by many rabbis over a few centuries. One
   gemara was developed in Israel, and is called the Yerushalmi; the
   other was developed in Babylonia, and is called the Bavli. You _never_
   find the gemara printed by itself. It is _always_ printed along with
   the Mishna.
   
   When you have the Babylonian gemara and the Mishna printed together,
   it is called Talmud Bavli (The Babylonian Talmud).
   
   When you have the Israeli gemara and the Mishna printed together, it
   is called Talmud Yerushalmi (or the Jerusalem Talmud, or the
   Palestinian Talmud, or the Talmud of the Land of Israel.)
   
   Keep in mind that the gemaras do not stick closely to the text, but
   offer a huge amount of additional material which is only loosely
   connected to the Mishna. They supplement the Mishna with haggadic
   materials and biblical expositions, and are a source for history and
   legend.

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Subject: What is the Talmud?

   The word 'talmud' literally means 'study'. The Talmud is sometimes
   referred to as the Shas. Shas is a shortened form of the term 'Shisha
   Sedarim (six orders), a reference to the six orders of the Mishna.
   There are two distinct works known as Talmud: the Yerushalmi
   (Jerusalem or Palestinian) Talmud, and the Bavli (Babylonian Talmud).
   However, the Babylonian Talmud has greater popularity and authority,
   so the generic term 'Talmud' almost always refers to the Babylonian
   Talmud. The generic 'gemara' thus refers to the gemara of the
   Babylonian Talmud. References to the Jerusalem Talmud are explicitly
   qualified.
   
   Traditionally, the Talmud is the supreme sourcebook of Law, as it
   takes the rules listed in the Torah and describes how to apply them to
   different circumstances. Although technically not a legal code (other
   works were created for that purpose), it is the ultimate source
   material that is used to decide all matters of Halakha (Jewish law).
   
   Traditional rabbis study the Talmud in depth, but in fact use the
   Talmud very rarely, preferring to accept opinions in later law codes
   as binding. Study of Talmud for its own sake is considered a great
   mitzvah.
   
   Conservative rabbis also consider Halakha as binding, but do not
   always accept the most recent and stringent opinions in the latest law
   codes as absolutely binding; As such they use the Talmud in the same
   way that rabbis of past eras used to use it. This is theoretically
   still an option in the Orthodox community, but in practice is used
   very rarely.
   
   Reform and Reconstructionist Jews do not teach Talmud in their Hebrew
   schools, but do teach it in their rabbinical seminaries. This material
   is used as part of the research into the application of Torah law, but
   the research also includes study of the larger context of the time,
   and the parallels to other co-existant societies.
   
   A citation "Check the gemara, Yevamos 12b" means tractate Yevamos,
   folio _12_, reverse side of the folio as per the organization of the
   Vilna edition of the Babylonian Talmud. Similarly, Chullin 5a would be
   the obverse side of the fifth folio of tractate Chullin. "Daf Yomi" is
   a program in which the participants study both sides of a folio of the
   Babylonian Talmud every day of the year. It takes about 7.5 years to
   complete the cycle.
   
   After the closing of the Talmud, there has been considerable further
   development of the Law in the areas of practical application, but
   always in a tone that reveres the stated views of the Talmudic rabbis
   as being on a higher plane than those of our modern scholars, who are
   free to interpret but not to contradict. A sharp distinction is always
   drawn between Torah Law (meaning law that derives directly from
   prohibitions in the Written or Oral Torah) and Rabbinic Law (meaning
   law that the Talmudic rabbis adopted as a `fence' to protect us from
   unwarily transgressing Torah Law), and different standards are used to
   judge cases of doubt in matters of Torah Law than of Rabbinic. Often,
   a false distinction is made by uninformed posters between `Torah'
   (meaning Written) Law and Oral Law---in normative Judaism, the two
   stand together in distinction to Rabbinic Law. Example: the Written
   Law says `an eye for an eye'. The Oral Law says (and historical
   documents from the Second Temple era confirm) that this was _never_
   intended literally, but rather means `measured and just (monetary)
   compensation for damages inflicted'. The Rabbinic Law upholds this
   principle, but might still command a man to forego the monetary
   damages in certain cases so as not to even come close to transgressing
   some other Torah prohibition, such as exacting interest on a debt, or
   causing baseless hatred. The first two are Torah, the last is not. But
   all are binding on Jews worldwide. (A still lower level of `law',
   called minhag, or `custom', is post-Talmudic and usually has force
   only within particular communities.)

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Subject: What is Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)?

   The Talmud Yerushalmi, also known as the Jerusalem Talmud (JT), the
   Palestinian Talmud, Talmud Eretz Yisrael (Talmud of the Land of
   Israel) and Gemara de Eretz Yisrael, is the Mishna plus the Yerushalmi
   gemara. It is interesting to note that the JT that we have today is
   missing a huge amount of material. There is only commentary for the
   first four orders of the Mishna; The rest has somehow been lost to
   history. The JT gemara is also missing for tractate Avot and Eduyot,
   parts of Toharot and other sections as well. Despite extensive
   scholarship, it still is unclear why this material was not included in
   the final redaction of the JT.
   
   Rabbi Yohanan bar Nappaha was the main redactor of the JT. It was
   redacted around 500 to 550 CE. Additionally, the name 'Jerusalem
   Talmud' is a misnomer, as it was most likely written in Northern
   Israel, specifically Tiberias.
   
   In general, whenever the JT contradicts the Babylonian Talmud (BT),
   the law follows the BT. Only on matters where BT is silent or unclear
   does the authority of the JT prevail.
   
   The absence of numerous Mishna tractates and chapters, the numerous
   self contradictions, as well as other internal evidence, suggests that
   the JT was _not_ in fact redacted in the proper sense of the word, but
   rather was a hasty collection of material. Many scholars believe that
   the reason for the ultimate acceptance of the BT rather than the JT
   had a lot to do with the power struggles between the two Jewish
   communities. Thus it can be argued that the poor preservation of the
   JT may be a result of its rejection rather than its cause.

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Subject: What is Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud)?

   The Talmud Bavli (BT) is the Mishna plus the Babylonian gemara. It is
   much more complete than the Talmud Yerushalmi (JT), and the redaction
   is much more careful and precise. Still, it is by no means complete.
   The gemara only exists for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishna.
   Why did these tractates remain without gemara in BT? The traditional
   answer is that the laws of Zeraim and Toharot (except Niddah) had no
   practical relevance; The agricultural laws were tied only to the land
   of Israel. In the diaspora these laws simply were of no use. The
   purity laws (except for family purity) were no longer applicable,
   because there was no longer a Temple and sacrificial system. One might
   think then that there would be no BT gemara on Qodashim - but there
   is. This is probably because the study of the sacrificial regulations
   is generally thought of as being on par with actually performing
   sacrifices.
   
   In the usual printed editions, the BT comprises the full Mishna, the
   37 gemaras, and the extra-canonical (minor) tractates; This comprises
   5,894 pages, and is much more extensive than the JT.
   
   The overall character of BT is encyclopedic. Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz
   states:
   
     The Talmud is the repository of thousands of years of Jewish wisdom.
     And the Oral Law, which is as ancient and significant as the Written
     Law (Torah), finds expression therein. It is a conglomerate of law,
     legend, and philosophy, a blend of unique logic and shrewd
     pragmatism, of history and science, anecdote and humor.
     

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is Rashi's Commentary on the Talmud?

   Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (or: Shlomo Yitzhaki) is known by the acronym
   "Rashi". Rashi lived from 1040 to 1105 in Troyes, France.
   
   Rashi's Commentary is always situated towards the middle of the opened
   book display; i.e. on the side of the page closest to the binding. The
   semi-cursive font in which the commentaries are printed is often
   referred to as "Rashi script." This does not mean that Rashi himself
   used such a script, only that the printers standardly employ it for
   commentaries. And Rashi's were the commentaries par excellence to both
   the Bible and the Talmud. Rashi's Commentary which covers almost the
   whole of the Babylonian Talmud, has been printed in every version of
   the Talmud since the first Italian printings.
   
   Rashi's commentary provides a full and adequate explanation of the
   words, and of the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. Unlike
   some other commentaries, Rashi does not paraphrase or exclude any part
   of the text, but carefully elucidates the whole of the text. Rashi
   also exerted a decisive influence on establishing the correct text of
   the Talmud. He compared different manuscripts and determined which
   readings should be preferred.
   
   Rashi's commentary does not exist for every tractate of the Babylonian
   Talmud, and a few of the printed commentaries attributed to him were
   composed by others. In some instances, the text indicates that Rashi
   died before completing the tractate, and that it was completed by a
   student. This is true of the tractate Makkot, the concluding portions
   of which were composed by his son-in-law Rabbi Judah ben Nathan and of
   Bava Batra finished (in a much wordier and detailed style) by his
   grandson, Rabbi Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), one of the prominent
   contributors to the Tosafot. It is probably a sign of the success of
   Rashi's achievement that no subsequent scholar, until Rabbi Adin
   Steinsaltz in the late 20th century, tried to compose another
   comprehensive explanatory commentary.

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Subject: What is the Tosafot?

   The Tosafot are commentary on the Talmud by various Rabbis shortly
   after the time of Rashi; Many of these rabbis were descendants of
   Rashi himself.
   
   The word "Tosafot" translates as "additions" or "supplements." This
   means that their authors and editors saw their work as supplements to
   Rashi's basic commentary. Some have seen the Tosafot as an addition to
   the Talmud itself. It carries on the Talmud's own methods of
   dialectical argument and debate. The Tosafot are printed on the outer
   margin of the page; i.e., when looking at an opened book you will see
   the Tosafot in the columns closest to the edges of the pages, farthest
   from the binding. They appear in Rashi script, with the headings of
   each discussion in large square letters. The Tosafot that have been
   printed in the standard Talmud editions are merely an accidental
   selection from a vast literature that circulated in manuscript. Some
   of the other Tosafot compendia have been published as separate works.
   

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Subject: Who wrote the Tosafot?

   The Tosafot were composed by many scholars in different schools
   throughout the 12th and 13th centuries. They probably originated as
   students' notes of the discussions that took place in the Talmudic
   academy [=Yeshivah]. As students moved from one yeshivah to another
   they would assemble personal lists of the Tosafot of their various
   teachers. Some of the most prominent contributors to the Tosafot were:
   
   Rabbi Jacob ben Meir (Rabbenu Tam) 1100 - 1171.
          Rashi's grandson, lived in the French town of Ramerupt.
          
   Rabbi Samuel ben Meir (The Rashbam) 1080 - 1158.
          A grandson of Rashi's and the brother of Rabbenu Tam. In
          addition to his contributions to the Tosafot, he composed a
          famous commentary to the Torah that is distinguished by its
          scholarly objectivity in restricting itself to the plain,
          contextual meaning of the text without imposing the traditional
          Rabbinic interpretations.
          
   Rabbi Isaac of Dampierre (The Ri).
          A nephew of Rabbenu Tam and the Rashbam, he lived in France
          during the 12th century; One of the most prolific of the
          Tosafists.
          
   Rabbi Samson [ben Abraham] of Sens
          He lived in France during the latter 12th and early 13th
          centuries, and eventually moved to Jerusalem. He was the most
          important disciple of Rabbi Isaac of Dampierre. In addition to
          his Tosafot he composed a commentary to the two orders of the
          Mishnah for which there is no Babylonian Talmud.
          
   Rabbi Meir [ben Barukh] of Rothenburg: 1225 - 1293
          Rabbi Meir made important contributions to Jewish civil law,
          and his many students diligently collected his customs,
          responsa and rulings, often comparing them with the material in
          the important Spanish codes of Jewish law.
          
   Unlike the explanatory commentaries, such as Rashi's, the Tosafot do
   not attempt to provide a full elucidation of the Talmud text. Rather
   they focus on particular issues in the Talmud or in Rashi's commentary
   which they explore in depth. They often propose alternative readings
   or interpretations to the ones presented by Rashi.

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Subject: What is the relationship of the Tosefta to the Talmuds?

   Both Talmud Bavli and Talmud Yerushalmi mostly ignore the Tosefta. The
   Babylonian and the Jerusalem gemaras to the Mishna usually proceed
   independently of material contained in the Tosefta.
   
   The only explicit quotation of the Tosefta in the Talmuds is in
   Masekhot Yoma, 70A. However, many baraitot quoted in the gemara
   correspond very closely to teachings in the Tosefta, agreeing in
   substance but differing in wording.
   
   Many rabbis in the gemara discuss a problem that seems already to have
   been solved in the Tosefta. The question is, are they unfamiliar with
   the Tosefta, or was the Tosefta considered non-authoritative, or were
   they simply unable to recall the Tosefta?
   
   The complete Hebrew text of the Tosefta is appended to the backs of
   Hebrew versions of the Talmud. An English translation by Jacob Neusner
   is available. Also, there are translations of complete Tosefta
   chapters available in different scholarly works.

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Subject: What are Baraitot?

   Any authoritative legal material that was not redacted as part of the
   Mishna is known as Baraitot. Often the Gemara (main part of the
   Talmud) will quote a legal source outside the Mishna; This is a
   quoting of a baraita. Everything in the Tosefta is Baraita by
   definition, although there is much material that is considered Baraita
   that is from outside the Tosefta. The word 'baraita' means 'external
   teaching'.

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Subject: What are the extra-canonical (minor) tractates?

   At the end of the Order Neziqin of BT, one finds a number of minor
   tractates:
    1. Avot de Rabbi Nathan. This is found in two versions, one with 41
       chapters, another has 48.
    2. Soferim. There is a BT version of this, as well as a JT version.
    3. Eyvel Rabbati. This tractate about laws and customs pertaining to
       dying and mourning is sometimes euphemistically called 'Semakhot'
       (rejoicing) by Rashi and others.
    4. Kalah. Discusses engagement, marriage and sex.
    5. Derekh Eretz Rabbah. This phrase literally means 'The Ways of the
       World', but is taken to mean deportment, manners and behavior.
    6. Derekh Eretz Zutta. Addresses to scholars, it is a collection of
       maxims urging self examination and modesty.
    7. Pereq haShalom.
    8. Sefer Torah. Regulations about writing Torah scrolls.
    9. Mezuzah
   10. Tefillin
   11. Tzitzit
   12. Avadim (slaves, or more accurately, indentured servants)
   13. Gerim (converts to Judaism)
   14. Kutim (Samaritans)
       

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Subject: What is a Midrash?

   Dr. Jacob Neusner explains that the word 'Midrash' is based on a
   Hebrew word meaning 'interpretation' or 'exegesis'. He shows that the
   term 'Midrash' has three main usages:
    1. The term 'Midrash' can refer to a particular way of reading and
       interpreting a biblical verse. Thus we may say that the ancient
       rabbis provided Midrash to Scripture. This does _not_ mean that
       any interpretation of scripture is automatically true rabbinical
       Midrash. In fact, most of what people call 'Modern Midrash' has
       nothing to do with the classical modes of literary exegesis that
       guided the rabbis. Commentary and Midrash are two different
       things! In order to get a good idea of what classical rabbinic
       Midrash really is, one has to actually study it; No two or three
       sentence definition can accurately define the structure of
       Midrash.
    2. The term 'Midrash' can refer to a book - a compilation of
       Midrashic teachings. Thus one can say that "Genesis Rabbah" is a
       book that is a compilation of Midrash readings on the book of
       Genesis.
    3. The term 'Midrash' can refer to a particular verse and its
       interpretation. Thus one can say that "The Midrash on the verse
       Genesis 1:1 says that...[and some Midrashic interpretation of the
       verse would go here].
       

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Subject: What are Halakhic (or Tannaitic) Midrashim?

   These are exegetical midrashim on the books of Exodus, Leviticus and
   Deuteronomy, primarily legal. They establish the Tanakh (Hebrew bible)
   as the source of Halakha.

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Subject: What are the main Halakhic Midrashim?

   Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael
          This is a halakhic commentary on Exodus, concentrating on the
          legal sections.
          
   Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai
          An exegetical midrash on Exodus.
          
   Sifra
          A halakhic commentary on Vayikra (Leviticus).
          
   Sifre Numbers
          An exegetical midrash on Bamidbar (Numbers).
          
   Sifre Zutta (The small Sifre)
          Halakhic commentary on Bamidbar.
          
   Sifre Deuteronomy
          An exegetical midrash on Deuteronomy.
          
   Midrash Tannaim (Mekhilta on Deuteronomy)
          This _was_ a Halakhic midrash on Deuteronomy, of which only
          fragments exist today.
          

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Subject: What are the main Exegetical Midrashim?

   Genesis Rabbah (Bereshit Rabbah)
          A midrash on Genesis, it offers explanations of words and
          sentences and haggadic interpretations and expositions -many of
          which are only loosely tied to the text. It was written
          sometime after 400 CE.
          
   Lamentations Rabbah (Eichah Rabbati)
          An exegetical midrash on Eichah (Lamentations). It contains
          verse by verse expositions, simple lexical explanations and
          also many parables and stories. It was probably written
          sometime in the fifth century.
          

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Subject: What are the main Homiletic Midrashim?

   Leviticus Rabbah (Vayikra Rabbah)
          This consists of 36 homilies on Leviticus, and was redacted
          sometime between 400 and 500 CE.
          
   Pesiqta de Rab Kahana (Verses of Rabbi Kahana)
          For a long time this work was only known by separate
          quotations, although recent scholarship has reconstructed the
          content and structure by piecing together more recently
          discovered manuscripts and fragments from the Cairo Genizah.
          This book is a homiletic midrash for the readings on the
          festivals and Sabbaths. The material contained within it was
          probably written between 500 and 700 CE.
          
   Pesiqta Rabbata
          A collection of sermons for the festivals and Sabbaths. It may
          have been written sometime in the 6th or 7th century, but a
          more accurate dating still is impossible.
          
   Tankhuma (Yelamdenu)
          A homiletic midrash on the whole Torah. It probably was
          redacted around 400 CE.
          
   Devarim (Deuteronomy) Rabbah
          Consists of 27 self contained homilies which relate to
          Deuteronomy. Its core material was written before 400 CE, but
          later material was added until its redaction around 800 CE.
          
   Shmot (Exodus) Rabbah
          The first part is an exegetical midrash on Exodus, while the
          second part is a homiletic midrash. It was redacted sometime
          before the 12th century, although it contains much older
          material.
          
   Bamidbar (Numbers) Rabbah
          A haggadic and homiletic midrash on Numbers. Although its final
          form was reached around the 12th century, most of the material
          is probably from the 8th century.
          

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Subject: What are the Midrashim on the Five Megillot (aka The So-Called
         Rabbot)?

   Lamentations Rabbah
          See above section.
          
   Midrash Shir haShirim (Song of Songs Rabbah)
          An allegorical interpretation of 'Song of Songs'. Written
          sometime between the 3rd and 6th century.
          
   Midrash Ruth
          Exposition of the book of Ruth, redacted around 500.
          
   Midrash Kohelet (Ecclesiastes Rabbah)
          An exposition of the book of Ecclesiastes, written in the 8th
          century.
          
   Midrash Ester (Haggadat Megillah)
          An exposition of the book of Ester, written around 500 CE.
          

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Subject: What are some other important Haggadic works?

   Megillat Ta'anit
          A list from the time of the Second Temple describing 36 days on
          which fasting is not permitted because of the joyous events
          which occurred on those days. The main text is from the 1st
          century, while the commentary is post-Talmudic.
          
   Seder Olam Rabbah (Seder Olam)
          Traditionally written by Tannaitic Rabbi Yose ben Halafta, it
          covers topics from the Creation to the construction of the
          Second Temple.
          
   Seder Olam Zutta
          This book draws up a list of 89 generations from Abraham to the
          exile, and then to the Talmudic period. Not written before the
          8th century.
          
   Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer (Baraita de Rabbi Eliezer)
          Contains 54 chapters on the life of rabbi Eliezer, and most of
          the Torah.It is nor a midrash in the real sense of the word,
          but is more a coherent biblical story. Dates from the 8th
          century.
          
   Josippon
          A history of the Jews from the fall of Babylonia to the
          destruction of the Second Temple. Written in 953 CE by an
          anonymous author in Southern Italy, based on many historical
          records, but mainly the works of the Roman Jew, Josephus.
          
   Sefer haYashar (Toldot Adam)
          "The Book of The Upright" presents a view of history from Adam
          and Eve to the Exodus from Egypt. Written sometime between the
          12th and 16th centuries.
          

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Subject: What is the Sefer Yetzirah (The Book of Creation)?

   The best translation and commentary on this is by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan.
   "Sefer Yetzirah", published by Jacob Aronson. It includes the complete
   Hebrew text of all versions of this book, a clear commentary with
   generous commentary and explanation, and in depth discussions of many
   areas of Kabbalah with clear and lucid explanations and diagrams. From
   the introduction:
   
     The Sefer Yetzirah is without question the oldest and most
     mysterious of all Kabbalistic texts. The first commentaries on this
     book were written in the 10th century, and the text itself is quoted
     as early as the sixth century. So ancient is this book that its
     origins are no longer accessible to historians.
     
     Careful study indicates that it is a meditative text with magical
     overtones. Talmudic traditions indicate that it could be used to
     create living creatures, including the Golem! The Sefer Yetzirah is
     a small and concise book, only 1300 words long in the short version
     and 2500 words long in the long version. The first chapter discusses
     the Sefirot; The second chapter is a discussion of the letters of
     the Hebrew alphabet, and the 231 gates; Chapters three to five
     discuss the divisions of the letters in relation to astrology.
     
     The text was deliberately written in a fashion so that it would be
     meaningless to those who read it without an extensive background in
     the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and Midrash. To guide the novice, Rabbi
     Kaplan takes great care to introduce the necessary knowledge to the
     reader, making it accessible for the very first time to English
     speakers without a Kabbalistic background.
     

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Subject: What is Sefer haBahir, The Bahir (The Book of Illumination)?

   The Bahir is one of the oldest and most important of all Kabbalistic
   texts. Until the publication of the Zohar, the Bahir was the most
   influential source of Kabbalistic teachings. It is quoted in virtually
   every major Kabbalistic work and is cited numerous times by the Ramban
   in his commentary on the Torah. It is also paraphrased and quoted many
   times in the Zohar.
   
   The name 'Bahir' literally means 'brilliant' or 'Illumination', and is
   derived from the first verse quoted in the text of the Bahir "And now
   they do not see the light, it is brilliant [bahir] in the skies",
   which itself is a quote from the book of Job (37:21).
   
   This book is also called "The Midrash of Rabbi Nehuniah ben haKana".
   Although the Bahir is a fairly small book, 12,000 words in all, it was
   very highly esteemed. It was first published in Provence in 1176. Most
   Kabbalists ascribe authorship to Rabbi Nehuniah ben haKana, a Talmudic
   sage of the first century.
   
   One of the most important concepts revealed in it is that of the ten
   Sefirot. Also discussed are the opening verses of Genesis and their
   true meaning; The mystical aspects of the Hebrew alphabet; A
   discussion of Gilgul [reincarnation]; The 32 paths of Wisdom, and the
   Tzimtum, among other topics.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is The Zohar?

   The Zohar [radiance] is the greatest classic of Jewish mysticism. It
   is a mystical commentary on the Torah, written in Aramaic, and is
   purported to be the teachings of the 2nd century Palestinian Rabbi
   Shimon ben Yohai. Legend relates that during a time of Roman
   persecution, Rabbi Shimon hid in a cave for 13 years, studying Torah
   with his son; During this time he is said to have been inspired by God
   to write the Zohar. However, there is no real mention of this book in
   any Jewish literature until the 13th century.
   
   In the 13th century, a Spanish Jew by the name of Moshe de Leon
   claimed to discover the text of the Zohar, and the text was
   subsequently published and distributed throughout the Jewish world.
   
   However, there is a school of thought (based on the writings of
   historian Gershom Scholem) that de Leon himself was the most likely
   author of the Zohar. Among other things, Scholem noticed the Zohar's
   frequent errors in Aramaic grammar and its highly suspicious traces of
   Spanish words and sentence patterns. This is still highly disputed by
   most (but not all) Orthodox Jews.
   
   Whoever the author is, the content of the book is not fraudulent. It
   definitely is based on older works, and it was a common practice to
   ascribe the authorship of a document to an ancient rabbi in order to
   give the document more weight.
   
   The Zohar contains and elaborates upon much of the material found in
   'Sefer Yetzirah' and 'Sefer Bahir', and without question is the
   Kabbalistic work par excellance.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What are the Major Codes of Jewish Law?

Title                                   Author
--------------------------------        ----------------
The Rif (Hilkhot of Rav Alfassi)        Yitchak Alfassi
Mishneh Torah  (Yad Ha-Hazaqah)         Maimonides
Sefer Mitzvot Gadol                     Moses ben Jacob
Arba'ah Turim  (The Tur)                Jacob ben Asher
Shulkhan Arukh                          Joseph Karo
Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh                   Shlomo Ganzfried
Mishnah Berurah                         R'Israel Meir Kagan


------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Rif (Hilchos of Rav Alfassi)?

   R. Yitchak Alfassi lived from 1013 to 1103. Early on he established a
   yeshiva in Fez, Morocco, but was forced to flee to Spain in 1088, and
   eventually established a yeshiva in Lucena that became the primary
   Torah center for Spain.
   
   His major work, entitled Hilchos of Rav Alfassi is more commonly
   referred to as the Rif, and is a summation of all the halakhic
   material in the Talmud. The Rif only quotes that portion of Talmudic
   dialogue that is pertinent today, omitting all halachot that are no
   longer relevant after the destruction of the Second Temple, such as
   the sacrificial service.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Mishneh Torah (Yad Ha-Hazaqah , Sefer Mehoqeq)?

   Moses Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, usually referred to in
   Hebrew by the acronym "Rambam") was one of the towering figures in
   medieval intellectual and religious life. In addition to his law code,
   he excelled in the fields of philosophy, science, medicine, exegesis
   and communal leadership. Though born in Spain, in his youth his family
   fled religious persecution, settling in Egypt. Maimonides' literary
   output includes: a work on philosophical logic; an Arabic commentary
   to the Mishnah; an enumeration of the 613 precepts of the Torah; the
   Mishneh Torah law code; the Arabic philosophical treatise The Guide of
   the Perplexed; and many letters and responsa addressed to various
   Jewish communities.
   
   Maimonides lived from 1138 to 1204. He spent ten full years compiling
   the Mishneh Torah, which he continued to revise throughout his
   lifetime. The term "Mishneh Torah" means "The Second Law" and is the
   name used in the Bible itself to designate the book of Deuteronomy,
   which is a kind summary or review of the rest of the Torah.
   Maimonides's Mishneh Torah was intended to be a summary of the entire
   body of Jewish religious law.
   
   The Mishneh Torah is sometimes referred to as the Yad Ha-Hazaqah, "the
   mighty arm." This is a play on the numerological value of the Hebrew
   word for arm, "yad," which is 14, equal to the number of volumes in
   this code. Maimonides actually referred to the book as "Sefer Mehoqeq"
   ("The Book of Legislation"), a title which is rarely employed.
   
   The Mishneh Torah is composed in Rabbinic Hebrew, after the style of
   the Mishnah. It is divided up into fourteen general sections (similar
   to the "orders" of the Mishnah), each of which is further subdivided
   into books (like tractates), and then into numbered chapters and laws.
   Some of the distinctive features of the Mishneh Torah are the
   following:
     * It encompasses the full range of Jewish law, as formulated for all
       ages and places. Most other Jewish law codes confined themselves
       to laws that were in force in their own times and lands, thereby
       excluding rules that apply only in the Land of Israel, under an
       independent Jewish kingdom, or that could not be observed
       following the destruction of the Temple.
     * It completely reorganizes and reformulates the laws in a clear and
       logical system. Earlier codes had followed the Talmud's sometimes
       haphazard arrangement with only very few attempts to improve on
       that order.
     * It presents the normative rulings without any discussion or
       explanation of how the decisions were reached.
     * It contains a section on systematic philosophical theology,
       derived largely from Aristotelian science and metaphysics, which
       it regards as the most important component of Jewish law. Most
       other Jewish codes avoided mixing creed and religious law; and
       Maimonides' interpretation of Jewish religion in terms of Greek
       ideas aroused much opposition.
       

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Subject: What is the Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The Semag)?

   This title translates as "The Great Book of Commandments" and was
   written by Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy' he lived in the first half
   of the 13th century, Coucy, France.
   
   This work, usually designated by its acronym, the Semag, classifies
   Jewish law according to the traditional enumeration of 613
   commandments. The work is divided into two sections. The first deals
   with the 365 negative precepts of the Torah, and the second with the
   248 positive precepts. References to the Semag are by Section
   (Positive or Negative) and Commandment Number within each section.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Arba'ah Turim (The Tur , The Four Rows)?

   The Arba'ah Turim was written by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher. He is also
   sometimes known as The Tur (after the title of his most famous work)
   or as "Ba'al Ha'Turim [Master of the Turim]. He lived from 1270 to
   1343, in Toledo, Spain.
   
   The Tur followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a
   topical order. However, unlike Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, the Arba'ah
   Turim covers only those areas of Jewish religious law that were in
   force in the author's time. Rabbi Jacob did not deal with criminal
   law, let alone with the sacrifices or the Zera'im (agricultural
   precepts that could be observed only in the Holy Land.) The code is
   divided into four main topics, each of which is divided into a
   sequence of numbered paragraphs. The four "rows" are:
    1. Orah Hayyim - "The Path of Life". This section deals with worship
       and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the
       course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle.
    2. Yoreh De'ah - "Teach Knowledge". This section deals with assorted
       ritual prohibitions, especially dietary laws and regulations
       concerning menstrual impurity.
    3. Even Ha-'Ezer ("The Rock of the Helpmate". This section deals with
       marriage, divorce and other issues in family law.
    4. Hoshen Mishpat - "The Breastplate of Judgment". This section deals
       with the administration and adjudication of civil law.
       
   Another departure from Maimonides' precedent was the fact that the Tur
   did not limit itself to recording the normative positions, but
   compared the various opinions on any disputed point. The influence of
   the Arba'ah Turim is thus perceptible in its integration of the
   Franco-German and Spanish legal traditions, as well as in its fourfold
   structure, which was later adopted by Rabbi Joseph Caro's Shulkhan
   Arukh, and remains the most widely used structure for the organization
   of law codes and responsa.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Shulkhan Arukh ?

   Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488 - 1575) made his greatest contribution to
   Jewish law by spending twenty years compiling an enormous halakhic
   work, the Beit Yosef. The Beit Yosef is a huge commentary on the Tur
   in which he clarifies the opinions of authorities who lived after the
   time of Rabbi Yaakov.
   
   However, a work was needed that would let a student determine Jewish
   law without having to wade through all of the voluminous and complex
   literature of the Talmud, the law codes and their commentaries.
   
   Rabbi Karo set out to solve this problem, and finally wrote The
   Shulkhan Arukh (literally, The Set Table) as a concise collection of
   the law brought in his larger work, the Beis Yosef. In writing the
   Shulkhan Arukh, Rabbi Yosef followed the chapter divisions of the Tur,
   although he innovated by breaking each section up into separate
   paragraphs for each law.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Hamappah of Rabbi Moshe Isserles?

   Rabbi Moshe Isserles, also known as the Rama, lived in Cracow from
   1525 to 1572. He noted that the Shulkhan Arukh was based almost
   entirely on Sephardic tradition, and thus set out to create a series
   of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Arukh for all
   instances where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed.
   
   The short comments of the Rama are incorporated into the body of the
   Shulkhan Arukh and are printed in Rashi script. He referred to his
   comments as a 'mappah', which means tablecloth [for the set table].

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh?

   This is a short, concise digest of halachah compiled by Rabbi Shlomo
   Ganzfried (Hungary 1804 to 1886). He intended his work for mostly
   uneducated laymen, and therefore did not cite sources for his rulings
   nor did he include any laws that were not useful in the daily life of
   the average Jew. This book became immensely popular after its
   publication due to its simplicity. This work is not binding in the
   same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulkhan Arukh.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the Mishnah Berurah?

   This is a commentary on the Shulkhan Arukh by Rabbi Israel Meir Kagan,
   better known as The Chofetz Chaim. (Poland, 1838 to 1933). Although he
   never held a formal position as a rabbi, hundreds of students flocked
   to his home in Radin. Eventually a yeshiva was established that Rabbi
   Meir supported. The Mishnah Berurah has become the authoritative
   halakhic guide for some segments of Ashkenazic Jewry. However, it is
   not accepted as an authoritative code by other segments, including
   many Chassidim and some Litvaks.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What Codes of Jewish Law Are Used by Non-traditional Jewish
         Movements? * Conservative Judaism

       The current guide to Jewish Law as understood by the Conservative
       movement was written by Rabbi Isaac Klein in the 1970s. His "Guide
       to Jewish Law" is a comprehensive guide book to the Conservative
       understanding of Jewish law based upon the previous law codes,
       including the Mishneh Torah, The Tur, The Shulkhan Arukh, and the
       Mishneh Berurah. The book also includes the decisions of the
       Conservative movement's Rabbinical Assembly and the Committee on
       Jewish Laws and Standards. The goal of Rabbi Klein's work was to
       reflect the collective understanding of Halakha by the
       Conservative movement.
     * Reform:
       
       Although not a formal guide to Jewish Law, the Central Conference
       of American Rabbis has published "Gates of Mitzvah" and "Gates of
       the Seasons" as guidance on mitzvot that are critical to the life
       of a Reform Jew. More information may be found in the Reform
       Reading List.
       

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is "Halacha?" How is it determined?

   Halacha means "Way" or "Path". Halacha is the application of the Law
   (Torah) to everyday living.
   
   The traditional viewpoint is that Halacha should be decided by those
   who are most knowledgable in all aspects of Jewish law. Since the
   Halacha of each generation is decided by its greatest Torah scholars,
   and the Torah doesn't change, there is usually little change in the
   Halacha from one generation to the next. The development of Halacha is
   most evident when new situations arise for which rulings must be made,
   such as the destruction of the Temple, the development of electricity,
   and the increasing complexity of modern food processing technology.
   
   Since the non-traditional viewpoint is that the the Torah itself was
   written by people, both the interpretation of the Law and its
   application are re-evaluated in each generation, using the
   interpretations of the past to serve primarily as non-binding guidance
   in how to continue this process.
   
   Both viewpoints encourages all Jews to study halacha, and apply it to
   their daily lives in order that they be brought closer to G-d.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: In Orthodox Judaism, what are the levels of halacha?

    1. _Minhag, custom_. Custom, although not really part of Halachah,
       can change. Minhag is any act that the masses, on their own,
       accept. Any minhag that is against actual Halachah, is called a
       minhag ta'os, a mistaken minhag. Any that is based on a
       misunderstanding is a minhag shtus, a foolish custom. These two
       should not be followed. Any nearly universal minhag is called a
       Minhag Yisroel, and has most of the stringencies of law.
       (Yarmulka, and Ma'ariv services are two examples of a Minhag
       Yisroel.)
    2. _Din dirabanan_. A rabbinic law. These are set up by the
       rabbinate, instead of the masses, in order to preserve the spirit
       of the law. For example, Purim and Chanukah. There are 7 new
       commandments that are entirely rabbinic, bringing the famous total
       of 613 mitzvot up to 620.
    3. _Gezeira dirabanan_. A rabbinic "fence". These are enacted to
       prevent a common cause for breaking the act of the law. For
       example, one may not place food directly on a fire before Shabbas
       in order to keep it heated during Shabbos. This is a fence around
       the law against cooking on Shabbos. To prevent the gezeira from
       being violated, a metal cover, called a blech in Yiddish, is
       placed on the stove top before Shabbos with the flame (turned to a
       low setting) under one section and the pot with food placed on the
       blech. This blech serves as a fence, allowing heating of the food
       without any danger of violating the law. Note that a "gezeira
       dirabanan" becomes binding only if it is accepted by the
       community.
    4. _P'sak_. A rabbinic ruling in determining the questionable area of
       some law or custom. A p'sak can only be over ruled by another body
       which is both larger in number, and greater in "chochmah". (The
       ability to know how to use the facts. Not more knowledgeable
       book-wise, but more steeped in the Torah weltanschauung.)
       
   The distinction between the second and third categories is subtle. In
   order to be a Din (or Issur, or Melachah) Dirabanan, the prohibited
   action must be similar in purpose to the permitted one. A gezeira does
   not even require an action. In the example I gave, it was inaction,
   leaving the pot where it is, that is prohibited. The category includes
   things that are similar in means to the prohibited act, and will
   therefore cause confusion about what is and what isn't okay; and
   things which will allow people to be caught up in habit, and forget
   about the prohibition. Only a gezeira may defy an actual Divine law
   (although a p'sak will often define one), and even so only under
   specific circumstances. All of the following must be satisfied:
   
     * The law being protected is more stringent than the one being
       violated. This determination isn't easy.
     * The law is being violated only through inaction. No one is being
       told to actively violate G-d's commandment.
     * The law being violated will still be applicable in most
       situations. It still must exist in some form.
       
   On the other hand, a gezeira is less powerful than a normal rabbinic
   law in that they can not be compounded. One may not make a "fence" for
   the express purpose of protecting another "fence". A law is considered
   accepted if it becomes common practice. Any din or gezeira which does
   not get accepted by the masses in the short run, does not become
   binding in the long run. Similarly, there are rules for p'sak, but
   they are violated if the masses choose to follows some other rabbinic
   body's p'sak. (For example, Beis Shammai outnumbered Beis Hillel.
   Since, however, Beis Hillel's style is more geared toward the masses,
   we almost universally accept their rulings.) Notice, however, that
   this is only in the short run. Once a law is accepted, it may only be
   overruled by p'sak. It cannot just fade into non-practice.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: In Orthodox Judaism, what are the different rabbinic eras?

   The end of each era is marked by a book that gets accepted by the
   masses as authoritative. This seals the acts of that era as a whole as
   accepted, authoritative p'sak. Therefore, any ruling by those who live
   after this era must be supported by an opinion of that era.
   
   The first such book (and the first written book of the Oral law) is
   the Mishna. There are other compilations of the Tanaitic material, the
   Braisos, and the Tosefta, but it is the Mishna that marks the end of
   the Tanaitic era. It was the Mishna that was accepted by the people.
   
   The second is the Babylonian Talmud. The Jerusalem Talmud is less
   authoritative because it was developed for a shorter time than the
   Babylonian Talmud. The Talmud marks the end of the Amoraic era.
   
   There is a Ga'onic era in Jewish history, but not in Jewish law, since
   there is no book that was accepted as the end of that era. The next
   such book(s) is the Shulchan Aruch (by R' Caro), the authoritative
   Sephardic resource, and the Mappah (Ramah), which has the Ashkenazic
   rulings when different (Note that both are in the same book; see the
   general reading list). This delineated the period of the Rishonim (The
   First Ones). A Rishon may argue with another Rishon, or with a Ga'on
   (since there is no Halachic concept of the Gaonic era), but can only
   argue with an Amora if he has another Amora in his support. He cannot
   use a Tana that was rejected by the Amora'im as support, since that
   would be overruling a p'sak of someone greater in chochmah.
   
   Anyone after the Shulchan Aruch is called an Acharon (The Last Ones).
   An Acharon can only disagree with a Rishon when he is taking the
   position of another Rishon. There are strict rules for change.
   
   Liberal Jews tend to justify halachic change by ascribing greater
   authority to present generations (or even to individuals) than to past
   generations of sages.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: How can differing halachic rulings all be considered valid?

   When both parties agree upon the underlying requirements. For example,
   rabbis would agree that one may only eat a kosher animal which was
   slaughtered properly. But they might differ as to the particulars of
   what constitutes proper kosher slaughtering.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: How does the Conservative movement deal with Halachic questions?

   The organization of Conservative rabbis is the Rabbinical Assembly
   (RA), an organization affiliated with the United Synagogue of
   Conservative Judaism (USCJ). The Rabbinical Assembly has appointed the
   Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, which considers questions
   dealing with Jewish Law (Halacha.) Responsa issued by the Committee
   may be adopted by congregational rabbis, each acting as mara d'atra
   (Aramaic idiom for local rabbinic authority) for that congregation,
   provided at least 6 members of the Committee concurred with that
   opinion. This allows several minority opinions to be adopted.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is the difference between two Orthodox rabbis who disagree and
         an Orthodox and a Reform who disagree?

   How could two people have two different, logically developed opinions
   on _any_ issue? The question is that:
   
     * Most decisions are not simply bilateral yes/no decisions
     * Valid interpretations according to traditional hermeneutics which
       differ in particulars of a particular place/time can survive
       concurrently (cf. any modern legal system)
       
   The Orthodox rabbis would both say that their halachic rulings are in
   line with the tradition of Torah learning, all the way from Sinai, and
   that their difference is in details. The Reform rabbi, however, might
   derive a ruling from other sources of morality, such as secular
   ethical notions of equality.
   
   Reform Rabbi Walter Jacob writes, in Contemporary American Reform
   Responsa that "Our path in America is clear and our halakhic stance is
   akin to the pluralism of the past from the days of Hillel and Shammai
   in the first century through the entire rabbinic period to our own
   time." Orthodox rabbis would counter that Hillel and Shammai differed
   on the particulars of halacha, but not the first principles, while
   Orthodox and Reform differ significantly on major principles, such as
   Torah being from G-d, and the authority of individuals to decide
   halacha for themselves.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Who is RAMBAM that is mentioned & what are his 13 principles

   Moses Maimonides (1135 - 1204 C.E.), "Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (R'MbM)"
   was among the greatest of Jewish sages and leaders, about whom a few
   lines of biography cannot begin to do justice. His 13 principles, as
   expressed in the Artscroll Siddur (pages 178-180) follow:
   
    1. G-d's Existence
    2. G-d is a complete and total unity
    3. G-d is not physical
    4. G-d is eternal and the First Source
    5. Prayers should be directed to G-d
    6. G-d communicates with man
    7. Moses' prophecy is unique
    8. The entire Torah is G-d-given
    9. The Torah is unchangeable
   10. G-d knows man's thoughts and deeds
   11. Reward and punishment
   12. The Messiah will come
   13. The dead will live again
       
   It would take volumes to explain what these mean, but a good
   "catechism" of Jewish beliefs is the Handbook of Jewish Thought by R'
   Aryeh Kaplan.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Who was Rashi?

   Rabbi Shlomo Ben Yitzchak, 1040-1105. Usually called Rabbi Shlomo
   Yitzchaki author of a massive commentary on almost all of Tanach and
   most of the Talmud. His fame rests not only on the content of his
   explanations but on their style which remains clear and concise
   throughout. His commentary has become the most comprehensive and
   popular in existence and provided the basis for most subsequent
   studies of the Tanach, Talmud, and Jewish Law.
   
   His commentary on Chumash, first printed in 1465, was the first dated
   Hebrew book, and appears in a special script now know as "Rashi
   script". His commentaries are considered the standard work without
   which it is impossible to understand the Talmud.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Who was the Ramban?

   Rabbi Moshe Ben Nachmon, Nachmanides, 1194-1270. He wrote a commentary
   on Torah and halachah, and more than 50 other lucid and logical works.
   He participated in a disputation (theological argument with the
   Catholic Church) in Barcelona in 1263; although he won, he was forced
   to flee Spain, and as a result all future disputations forbade the
   Jewish participants to answer frankly. At age 72 he settled in
   Jerusalem, reorganized the Jewish community, and moved to Acco to
   become head its Jewish community.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: What is Kabbalah and how can I learn about it?

   It's important to differentiate between the popular notion of Kabbalah
   and the concept within traditional Judaism. In the popular culture,
   Kabbalah is perceived as a form of magic or the occult, studied for
   selfish personal gain. This misinformed idea resulted from those who
   adapted Jewish ideas out of the context of Jewish belief and practice,
   warping it away from its foundations to their own purposes. These
   include medieval Christian mystics, neo-pagan groups, and contemporary
   "new age" movements.
   
   Within Judaism, though, Kabbalah is the part of Torah that addresses
   the process of creation ("Ma'aseh B'raisheet") and the relationship
   that G-d maintains with creation ("Ma'aseh Merkavah"). As such it is
   the Torah's inner aspect. Some traditions say that some of the key
   texts go as far back as the Patriarch Abraham.
   
   Parts of Kabbalah, such as the Zohar and Rabbi Moshe Cordovero's
   "Pardes Rimonim," are accessible but difficult to understand without a
   firm grounding in the more basic Jewish sources and an informed
   teacher. Other parts remain hidden and unavailable to the public.
   Parts have been committed to print but others remain as closely held,
   orally transmitted tradition.
   
   The most accessible, traditionally accurate books for English language
   study of the topic are Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's "Innerspace, Introduction
   to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy" (Moznaim Publishing, Brooklyn
   NY), "Meditation and Kabbalah," "Kabbalah and the Bible" (Samuel
   Weiser and Sons, New York), and "Jewish Meditation" (Schocken, New
   York). Lubavitcher Chassidim recommend directed study of the Tanya.
   (Kehot Publications, New York)
   
   Additional information may be found in the Mysticism Reading List,
   available as usenet/news.answers/judaism/reading-lists/mysticism from
   rtfm.mit.edu.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Who is allowed to study Kabbalah?

   The Kabbalah deals with sensitive topics and the knowledge it offers
   has been warped, even within the Jewish community. This resulted in
   severe disruption of the Eastern European Jewish community (ref: the
   false messiah Shabbtai Tzvi and the Frankists). As a result the
   non-Chassidic sages there placed a ban on the study of three basic
   texts until the age of 30, until the age of 40 for general study, and
   in all cases until one has studied the more basic Jewish sources
   (Tanakh, Talmud, Halacha) in depth. However, in Sephardic and
   Chassidic communities, some basic texts are studied even by young
   folks.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Archival and Credits

  Anonymous FTP:
  
   All portions of the FAQ and of the reading lists are archived on
   shamash.org [192.77.173.13] and on rtfm.mit.edu, and are available
   for anonymous FTP. On shamash.org, the parts of the FAQ are stored in
   the israel/lists/scj-faq/FAQ directory. On rtfm.mit.edu, these FAQs
   are stored in the pub/usenet/news.answers/judaism/FAQ directory. Note
   that the archived versions of the FAQ are the posted versions; that
   is, they are each one large ASCII file.
   
   The following is the mapping of sections to files:
   
   01-FAQ-intro
          Section 1: Network and Soc.Culture.Jewish Information
          
   02-Who-We-Are
          Section 2: Who We Are
          
   03-Torah-Halacha
          Section 3: Torah
          Section 4: Halachic Authority
          
   04-Observance
          Section 5: Jewish Holidays
          Section 6: Jewish Dietary Law and Kashrut
          Section 7: Sabbath and Holiday Observance
          Section 8: Woman and Marriage
          
   05-Worship
          Section 9: Jewish Worship
          Section 10: Conversion, Intermarriage, and "Who is a Jew?"
          Section 11: Miscellaneous Practice Questions
          
   06-Jewish-Thought
          Section 12: Jewish Thought
          
   07-Jews-As-Nation
          Section 13: Jews as a Nation
          
   08-Israel
          Section 14: Jews and Israel
          
   09-Antisemitism
          Section 15: Churban Europa (The Holocaust)
          Section 16: Antisemitism and Rumors about Jews
          Section 17: Countering Missionaries
          
   10-Reform
          Section 18: Reform/Progressive Judaism
          
   11-Miscellaneous
          Section 19: Miscellaneous
          Section 20: References and Getting Connected
          
   12-Kids
          Section 21: Jewish Childrearing Related Questions
          
   mail-order
          Mail Order Judaica
          
   On shamash.org, the parts of the reading lists are stored in the
   israel/lists/scj-faq/reading-lists directory. On rtfm.mit.edu, the
   reading lists are stored in the
   pub/usenet/news.answers/judaism/reading-lists directory. Note that the
   archived versions of the reading lists are the posted versions; that
   is, they are each one large ASCII file.
   
   The following is the mapping of reading lists to files:
   
   general
          Introduction and General. Includes book sources, starting
          points for beginners, starting points for non-Jewish readers,
          General Judaism, General Jewish Thought, General Jewish
          History, Noachide Laws, Torah and Talmud, Mishnah and Talmud,
          Torah and Talmudic Commentary, Midrash, Halachic Codes,
          Becoming An Observant Jew, Women and Judaism, and Science and
          Judaism.
          
   traditional
          Traditional Liturgy, Practice, Lifestyle, Holidays. Includes
          Traditional Liturgy; Traditional Philosophy and Ethics; Prayer;
          Traditional Practice; The Household; Life, Death, and
          In-Between; and The Cycle Of Holidays.
          
   mysticism
          Kabbalah, Mysticism, and Messianism. Includes Academic and
          Religious treatments of Kabbalah, Sprituality, and the Jewish
          notion of the Messiah.
          
   reform
          Reform/Progressive Judaism
          
   conservative
          Conservative Judaism
          
   reconstructionist
          Reconstructionist Judaism
          
   humanistic
          Humanistic Judaism (Society for Humanistic Judaism)
          
   chasidism
          Chassidism. Includes general information on historical
          chassidism, as well as specific information on Lubavitch
          (Chabad), Satmar, Breslaw (Breslov), and other approaches.
          
   zionism
          Zionism. Includes Zionism and The Development Of Israel, The
          Founders, Zionistic Movements, and Judaism in Israel.
          
   antisemitism
          Antisemitism. Includes sections on Antisemitism, What Led to
          The Holocaust, Medieval Oppression, Antisemitism Today
          (Including Dealing with Hate Groups), Judaism and Christianity,
          and Judaism, Freemasonry and other rumors.
          
   intermarriage
          Intermarriage. Includes sections on "So You're Considering
          Intermarriage?", The Traditional Viewpoint, Conversion, and
          Coping With Life As An Intermarried.
          
   periodicals
          Periodicals. Includes Topical General Interest Periodicals,
          General Interest Periodicals focused on Tradition and Home,
          General Interest Periodicals focused on Jewish Scholarship,
          Other General Interest Periodicals, Publications Targeted For
          Specific Movements, Rabbinic Journals, and Local Publications.
          
   childrens
          Books for Jewish Children. Includes.
          
  Mail:
  
   The files may also be obtained via Email by sending a message to
   faigin@shamash.org with any number of the following commands in the
   body of the mail message:
   
   send faq _portionnames_
   send rl _portionnames_
   
   The "send faq" version is used to obtain portions of the FAQ; the
   "send rl" version is used to obtain portions of the reading list.
   "_portionnames_" should be replaced by the names of the files to be
   retrieved, separated by spaces. The special file name "list" will
   retrieve a list of all files that make up the FAQ or reading list; the
   special file name "all" will retrieve all files on the appropriate
   list.
   
   Examples:
   send faq all
   send faq list
   send faq 01-FAQ-intro
   send rl all
   send rl general
   
   Alternatively, you may send a message to mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu with
   the following line in the body of the message:
   
   send usenet/news.answers/judaism/(portionname)
   
   Where (portionname) is replaced by the appropriate subdirectory and
   filenames; for example, to get the first part of the reading list, one
   would say:

        send usenet/news.answers/judaism/reading-lists/general

  WWW:
  
   The FAQ and reading lists are available as a full hypertext tree on
   shamash.org. The URL is:
   
   http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/index.html

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Credits

   The Frequently Asked Questions were developed by a committee
   consisting of Mike Allen, Jerry Altzman, Rabbi Charles Arian, Jacob
   Baltuch (Past Chair), Joseph Berry, Warren Burstein, Stewart Clamen,
   Daniel Faigin, Avi Feldblum, Itzhak "Jeff" Finger, Gedaliah
   Friedenberg, Yechezkal Gutfreund, Art Kamlet, Joe Kansun, Alan
   Lustiger, Hillel Markowitz, Len Moskowitz, Colin Naturman, Aliza
   Panitz, Eliot Shimoff, Mark Steinberger, Steven Weintraub, Matthew
   Wiener, and headed by Robert Levene. The organization and structuring
   of the lists for posting purposes was done by D. Faigin, who is
   currently maintaining the lists.Other contributors include A. Engler
   Anderson, Ken Arromdee, Seymour Axelrod, Josh Backon, Micha Berger,
   Steven M. Bergson, Eli Birnbaum, Kevin Brook, J. Burton, Harvey Cohen,
   Todd J.Dicker, Michael Dinowitz, Sean Engelson, Mike Fessler, Menachem
   Glickman, Amitai Halevi, Walter Hellman, Miriam Jerris, Robert D.
   Kaiser, Yosef Kazen, Rabbi Jay Lapidus, Mier Lehrer, Heather Luntz,
   Arnaldo Mandel, Ilana Manspeizer, Seth Ness, Chris Newport, Alan
   Pfeffer, Adam Reed, Seth Rosenthall, JudithSeid@aol.com, David Sheen,
   Michael Sidlofsky, Michael Slifkin, Frank Smith, Andy Tannenbaum,
   marktan@aol.com, Meredith Warshaw, Bill Wadlinger, Arel Weisberg, and
   Art Werschulz. Comments and corrections are welcome. You may address
   comments either to the maintainer (faigin@pacificnet.net) or to the
   SCJ FAQ committee (scj-faq-list@columbia.edu).

------------------------------------------------------------
--
Please mail additions or corrections to me at faigin@pacificnet.net.


End of SCJ FAQ Part 3 (Torah and Halachic Authority) Digest
**************************
-------
-- 
faigin@pacificnet.net   Moderator, Mail.Liberal-Judaism (mlj@shamash.org)
   |  @shamash.org      Maintainer, S.C.J FAQ/Reading List * Advisor S.C.J.P
   |  @aero.org         Daddy, Erin Shoshana  misc.kids Albums 95pg48 96pg27
   v  @acm.org          Home Page: http://www.pacificnet.net/~faigin/
