
                        THE EDICTS OF KING ASOKA

                                          
                        An English rendering by
                                          
                            Ven. S. Dhammika
  

                    The Wheel Publication No. 386/387
                           ISBN 955-24-0104-6

                           Published in 1993
  
                      BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
                      KANDY              SRI LANKA
                                          
                                          
                    Copyright 1993 Ven. S. Dhammika

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                         DharmaNet Edition 1994
                                          
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                        The Edicts of King Asoka
  
  King Asoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come 
  to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history. 
  The British historian H.G. Wells has written: "Amidst the tens of 
  thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history ... 
  the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star." Although 
  Buddhist literature preserved the legend of this ruler -- the story of 
  a cruel and ruthless king who converted to Buddhism and thereafter 
  established a reign of virtue -- definitive historical records of his 
  reign were lacking. Then in the nineteenth century there came to light 
  a large number of edicts, in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. 
  These edicts, inscribed on rocks and pillars, proclaim Asoka's reforms 
  and policies and promulgate his advice to his subjects. The present 
  rendering of these edicts, based on earlier translations, offers us 
  insights into a powerful and capable ruler's attempt to establish an 
  empire on the foundation of righteousness, a reign which makes the 
  moral and spiritual welfare of his subjects its primary concern.
  
  The Australian bhikkhu Ven. S. Dhammika, the compiler of the present 
  work, is the spiritual director of the Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society 
  in Singapore.
  
                            * * * * * * * *
                                          

                                          
                                PREFACE
  
  This rendering of King Asoka's Edicts is based heavily on 
  Amulyachandra Sen's English translation, which includes the original 
  Magadhi and a Sanskrit and English translation of the text. However, 
  many parts of the edicts are far from clear in meaning and the 
  numerous translations of them differ widely. Therefore, I have also 
  consulted the translations of C. D. Sircar and D. R. Bhandarkar and in 
  parts favored their interpretations. Any credit this small book 
  deserves is due entirely to the labors and learning of these scholars.
  
  
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                              INTRODUCTION
  
  
            //Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti? Apasinave,
            bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace, socaye//.
            
            Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma?
            (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness,
            generosity, truthfulness and purity.
  
                                               King Asoka
  
  
  With the rediscovery and translation of Indian literature by European 
  scholars in the 19th century, it was not just the religion and 
  philosophy of Buddhism that came to light, but also its many legendary 
  histories and biographies. Amongst this class of literature, one name 
  that came to be noticed was that of Asoka, a good king who was 
  supposed to have ruled India in the distant past. Stories about this 
  king, similar in outline but differing greatly in details, were found 
  in the Divyavadana, the Asokavadana, the Mahavamsa and several other 
  works. They told of an exceptionally cruel and ruthless prince who had 
  many of his brothers killed in order to seize the throne, who was 
  dramatically converted to Buddhism and who ruled wisely and justly for 
  the rest of his life. None of these stories were taken seriously -- 
  after all many pre-modern cultures had legends about "too good to be 
  true" kings who had ruled righteously in the past and who, people 
  hoped, would rule again soon. Most of these legends had their origins 
  more in popular longing to be rid of the despotic and uncaring kings 
  than in any historical fact. And the numerous stories about Asoka were 
  assumed to be the same.
  
    But in 1837, James Prinsep succeeded in deciphering an ancient 
  inscription on a large stone pillar in Delhi. Several other pillars 
  and rocks with similar inscriptions had been known for some time and 
  had attracted the curiosity of scholars. Prinsep's inscription proved 
  to be a series of edicts issued by a king calling himself 
  "Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi." In the following decades, more 
  and more edicts by this same king were discovered and with 
  increasingly accurate decipherment of their language, a more complete 
  picture of this man and his deeds began to emerge. Gradually, it 
  dawned on scholars that the King Piyadasi of the edicts might be the 
  King Asoka so often praised in Buddhist legends. However, it was not 
  until 1915, when another edict actually mentioning the name Asoka was 
  discovered, that the identification was confirmed. Having been 
  forgotten for nearly 700 years, one of the greatest men in history 
  became known to the world once again.
    
    Asoka's edicts are mainly concerned with the reforms he instituted 
  and the moral principles he recommended in his attempt to create a 
  just and humane society. As such, they give us little information 
  about his life, the details of which have to be culled from other 
  sources. Although the exact dates of Asoka's life are a matter of 
  dispute among scholars, he was born in about 304 B.C. and became the 
  third king of the Mauryan dynasty after the death of his father, 
  Bindusara. His given name was Asoka but he assumed the title 
  Devanampiya Piyadasi which means "Beloved-of-the-Gods, He Who Looks On 
  With Affection." There seems to have been a two-year war of succession 
  during which at least one of Asoka's brothers was killed. In 262 B.C., 
  eight years after his coronation, Asoka's armies attacked and 
  conquered Kalinga, a country that roughly corresponds to the modern 
  state of Orissa. The loss of life caused by battle, reprisals, 
  deportations and the turmoil that always exists in the aftermath of 
  war so horrified Asoka that it brought about a complete change in his 
  personality. It seems that Asoka had been calling himself a Buddhist 
  for at least two years prior to the Kalinga war, but his commitment to 
  Buddhism was only lukewarm and perhaps had a political motive behind 
  it. But after the war Asoka dedicated the rest of his life trying to 
  apply Buddhist principles to the administration of his vast empire. He 
  had a crucial part to play in helping Buddhism to spread both 
  throughout India and abroad, and probably built the first major 
  Buddhist monuments. Asoka died in 232 B.C. in the thirty-eighth year 
  of his reign.
    
    Asoka's edicts are to be found scattered in more than thirty places 
  throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Most of them are 
  written in Brahmi script from which all Indian scripts and many of 
  those used in Southeast Asia later developed. The language used in the 
  edicts found in the eastern part of the sub-continent is a type of 
  Magadhi, probably the official language of Asoka's court. The language 
  used in the edicts found in the western part of India is closer to 
  Sanskrit although one bilingual edict in Afghanistan is written in 
  Aramaic and Greek. Asoka's edicts, which comprise the earliest 
  decipherable corpus of written documents from India, have survived 
  throughout the centuries because they are written on rocks and stone 
  pillars. These pillars in particular are testimony to the 
  technological and artistic genius of ancient Indian civilization. 
  Originally, there must have been many of them, although only ten with 
  inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in 
  height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were 
  quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes 
  hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. Each pillar was 
  originally capped by a capital, sometimes a roaring lion, a noble bull 
  or a spirited horse, and the few capitals that survive are widely 
  recognized as masterpieces of Indian art. Both the pillars and the 
  capitals exhibit a remarkable mirror-like polish that has survived 
  despite centuries of exposure to the elements. The location of the 
  rock edicts is governed by the availability of suitable rocks, but the 
  edicts on pillars are all to be found in very specific places. Some, 
  like the Lumbini pillar, mark the Buddha's birthplace, while its 
  inscriptions commemorate Asoka's pilgrimage to that place. Others are 
  to be found in or near important population centres so that their 
  edicts could be read by as many people as possible.
    
    There is little doubt that Asoka's edicts were written in his own 
  words rather than in the stylistic language in which royal edicts or 
  proclamations in the ancient world were usually written in. Their 
  distinctly personal tone gives us a unique glimpse into the 
  personality of this complex and remarkable man. Asoka's style tends to 
  be somewhat repetitious and plodding as if explaining something to one 
  who has difficulty in understanding. Asoka frequently refers to the 
  good works he has done, although not in a boastful way, but more, it 
  seems, to convince the reader of his sincerity. In fact, an 
  anxiousness to be thought of as a sincere person and a good 
  administrator is present in nearly every edict. Asoka tells his 
  subjects that he looked upon them as his children, that their welfare 
  is his main concern; he apologizes for the Kalinga war and reassures 
  the people beyond the borders of his empire that he has no 
  expansionist intentions towards them. Mixed with this sincerity, there 
  is a definite puritanical streak in Asoka's character suggested by his 
  disapproval of festivals and of religious rituals many of which while 
  being of little value were nonetheless harmless. 
    
    It is also very clear that Buddhism was the most influential force 
  in Asoka's life and that he hoped his subjects likewise would adopt 
  his religion. He went on pilgrimages to Lumbini and Bodh Gaya, sent 
  teaching monks to various regions in India and beyond its borders, and 
  he was familiar enough with the sacred texts to recommend some of them 
  to the monastic community. It is also very clear that Asoka saw the 
  reforms he instituted as being a part of his duties as a Buddhist. 
  But, while he was an enthusiastic Buddhist, he was not partisan 
  towards his own religion or intolerant of other religions. He seems to 
  have genuinely hoped to be able to encourage everyone to practice his 
  or her own religion with the same conviction that he practiced his. 
    
    Scholars have suggested that because the edicts say nothing about 
  the philosophical aspects of Buddhism, Asoka had a simplistic and 
  naive understanding of the Dhamma. This view does not take into 
  account the fact that the purpose of the edicts was not to expound the 
  truths of Buddhism, but to inform the people of Asoka's reforms and to 
  encourage them to be more generous, kind and moral. This being the 
  case, there was no reason for Asoka to discuss Buddhist philosophy. 
  Asoka emerges from his edicts as an able administrator, an intelligent 
  human being and as a devoted Buddhist, and we could expect him to take 
  as keen an interest in Buddhist philosophy as he did in Buddhist 
  practice.
    
    The contents of Asoka's edicts make it clear that all the legends 
  about his wise and humane rule are more than justified and qualify him 
  to be ranked as one of the greatest rulers. In his edicts, he spoke of 
  what might be called state morality, and private or individual 
  morality. The first was what he based his administration upon and what 
  he hoped would lead to a more just, more spiritually inclined society, 
  while the second was what he recommended and encouraged individuals to 
  practice. Both these types of morality were imbued with the Buddhist 
  values of compassion, moderation, tolerance and respect for all life. 
  The Asokan state gave up the predatory foreign policy that had 
  characterized the Mauryan empire up till then and replaced it with a 
  policy of peaceful co-existence. The judicial system was reformed in 
  order to make it more fair, less harsh and less open to abuse, while 
  those sentenced to death were given a stay of execution to prepare 
  appeals and regular amnesties were given to prisoners. State resources 
  were used for useful public works like the importation and cultivation 
  of medical herbs, the building of rest houses, the digging of wells at 
  regular intervals along main roads and the planting of fruit and shade 
  trees. To ensue that these reforms and projects were carried out, 
  Asoka made himself more accessible to his subjects by going on 
  frequent inspection tours and he expected his district officers to 
  follow his example. To the same end, he gave orders that important 
  state business or petitions were never to be kept from him no matter 
  what he was doing at the time. The state had a responsibility not just 
  to protect and promote the welfare of its people but also its 
  wildlife. Hunting certain species of wild animals was banned, forest 
  and wildlife reserves were established and cruelty to domestic and 
  wild animals was prohibited. The protection of all religions, their 
  promotion and the fostering of harmony between them, was also seen as 
  one of the duties of the state. It even seems that something like a 
  Department of Religious Affairs was established with officers called 
  Dhamma Mahamatras whose job it was to look after the affairs of 
  various religious bodies and to encourage the practice of religion.
    
    The individual morality that Asoka hoped to foster included respect 
  (//susrusa//) towards parents, elders, teachers, friends, servants, 
  ascetics and brahmins -- behavior that accords with the advice given 
  to Sigala by the Buddha (Digha Nikaya, Discourse No. 31). He 
  encouraged generosity (//dana//) to the poor (//kapana valaka//), to 
  ascetics and brahmins, and to friends and relatives. Not surprisingly, 
  Asoka encouraged harmlessness towards all life (//avihisa bhutanam//). 
  In conformity with the Buddha's advice in the Anguttara Nikaya, 
  II:282, he also considered moderation in spending and moderation in 
  saving to be good (//apa vyayata apa bhadata//). Treating people 
  properly (//samya pratipati//), he suggested, was much more important 
  than performing ceremonies that were supposed to bring good luck. 
  Because it helped promote tolerance and mutual respect, Asoka desired 
  that people should be well-learned (//bahu sruta//) in the good 
  doctrines (//kalanagama//) of other people's religions. The qualities 
  of heart that are recommended by Asoka in the edicts indicate his deep 
  spirituality. They include kindness (//daya//), self-examination 
  (//palikhaya//), truthfulness (//sace//), gratitude (//katamnata//), 
  purity of heart (//bhava sudhi//), enthusiasm (//usahena//), strong 
  loyalty (//dadha bhatita//), self-control (//sayame//) and love of the 
  Dhamma (//Dhamma kamata//).
    
    We have no way of knowing how effective Asoka's reforms were or how 
  long they lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout the ancient 
  Buddhist world were encouraged to look to his style of government as 
  an ideal to be followed. King Asoka has to be credited with the first 
  attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. Today, with widespread 
  disillusionment in prevailing ideologies and the search for a 
  political philosophy that goes beyond greed (capitalism), hatred 
  (communism) and delusion (dictatorships led by "infallible" leaders), 
  Asoka's edicts may make a meaningful contribution to the development 
  of a more spiritually based political system.
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                        THE FOURTEEN ROCK EDICTS
  
  
  
                                   1
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma edict to be 
  written.[1] Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered 
  or offered in sacrifice. Nor should festivals be held, for 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, sees much to object to in such 
  festivals, although there are some festivals that Beloved-of-the-Gods, 
  King Piyadasi, does approve of.
    
    Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, 
  hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. 
  But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, 
  two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in 
  time, not even these three creatures will be killed.
    
    
  
                                   2
  
  Everywhere [2] within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and 
  among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the 
  Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the 
  Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of 
  Antiochos,[3] everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made 
  provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for 
  humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs 
  suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them 
  imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available 
  I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug 
  and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.[4]
  
  
  
                                   3
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[5] Twelve years after 
  my coronation this has been ordered -- Everywhere in my domain the 
  Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall go on inspection tours 
  every five years for the purpose of Dhamma instruction and also to 
  conduct other business.[6]
  
    Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, 
  acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing 
  living beings is good, moderation in spending and moderation in saving 
  is good. The Council shall notify the Yuktas about the observance of 
  these instructions in these very words.
  
  
  
                                   4
  
  In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming living 
  beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior 
  towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased.[7] But now due to 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's Dhamma practice, the sound of the 
  drum has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma.[8] The sighting of 
  heavenly cars, auspicious elephants, bodies of fire and other divine 
  sightings has not happened for many hundreds of years. But now because 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing 
  and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, 
  Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders, such 
  sightings have increased.[9]
    
    These and many other kinds of Dhamma practice have been encouraged 
  by Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and he will continue to promote 
  Dhamma practice. And the sons, grandsons and great-grandsons of 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, too will continue to promote 
  Dhamma practice until the end of time; living by Dhamma and virtue, 
  they will instruct in Dhamma. Truly, this is the highest work, to 
  instruct in Dhamma. But practicing the Dhamma cannot be done by one 
  who is devoid of virtue and therefore its promotion and growth is 
  commendable.
    
    This edict has been written so that it may please my successors to 
  devote themselves to promoting these things and not allow them to 
  decline. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had this written 
  twelve years after his coronation.
  
  
  
                                   5
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[10] To do good is 
  difficult. One who does good first does something hard to do. I have 
  done many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons and their descendants 
  up to the end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much 
  good. But whoever amongst them neglects this, they will do evil. 
  Truly, it is easy to do evil.[11]
  
    In the past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were 
  appointed by me thirteen years after my coronation. Now they work 
  among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma, for the promotion 
  of Dhamma, and for the welfare and happiness of all who are devoted to 
  Dhamma. They work among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Gandharas, the 
  Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on the western borders.[12] 
  They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, the poor, 
  the aged and those devoted to Dhamma -- for their welfare and 
  happiness -- so that they may be free from harassment. They (Dhamma 
  Mahamatras) work for the proper treatment of prisoners, towards their 
  unfettering, and if the Mahamatras think, "This one has a family to 
  support," "That one has been bewitched," "This one is old," then they 
  work for the release of such prisoners. They work here, in outlying 
  towns, in the women's quarters belonging to my brothers and sisters, 
  and among my other relatives. They are occupied everywhere. These 
  Dhamma Mahamatras are occupied in my domain among people devoted to 
  Dhamma to determine who is devoted to Dhamma, who is established in 
  Dhamma, and who is generous.
  
    This Dhamma edict has been written on stone so that it might endure 
  long and that my descendants might act in conformity with it.
  
  
  
                                   6
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[13] In the past, 
  state business was not transacted nor were reports delivered to the 
  king at all hours. But now I have given this order, that at any time, 
  whether I am eating, in the women's quarters, the bed chamber, the 
  chariot, the palanquin, in the park or wherever, reporters are to be 
  posted with instructions to report to me the affairs of the people so 
  that I might attend to these affairs wherever I am. And whatever I 
  orally order in connection with donations or proclamations, or when 
  urgent business presses itself on the Mahamatras, if disagreement or 
  debate arises in the Council, then it must be reported to me 
  immediately. This is what I have ordered. I am never content with 
  exerting myself or with despatching business. Truly, I consider the 
  welfare of all to be my duty, and the root of this is exertion and the 
  prompt despatch of business. There is no better work than promoting 
  the welfare of all the people and whatever efforts I am making is to 
  repay the debt I owe to all beings to assure their happiness in this 
  life, and attain heaven in the next.
  
    Therefore this Dhamma edict has been written to last long and that 
  my sons, grandsons and great-grandsons might act in conformity with it 
  for the welfare of the world. However, this is difficult to do without 
  great exertion.
  
  
  
                                   7
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should 
  reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of 
  heart.[14] But people have various desires and various passions, and 
  they may practice all of what they should or only a part of it. But 
  one who receives great gifts yet is lacking in self-control, purity of 
  heart, gratitude and firm devotion, such a person is mean.
  
  
  
                                   8
  
  In the past kings used to go out on pleasure tours during which there 
  was hunting and other entertainment.[15] But ten years after 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods had been coronated, he went on a tour to Sambodhi 
  and thus instituted Dhamma tours.[16] During these tours, the 
  following things took place: visits and gifts to Brahmans and 
  ascetics, visits and gifts of gold to the aged, visits to people in 
  the countryside, instructing them in Dhamma, and discussing Dhamma 
  with them as is suitable. It is this that delights 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and is, as it were, another type 
  of revenue.
  
  
  
                                   9
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[17] In times of 
  sickness, for the marriage of sons and daughters, at the birth of 
  children, before embarking on a journey, on these and other occasions, 
  people perform various ceremonies. Women in particular perform many 
  vulgar and worthless ceremonies. These types of ceremonies can be 
  performed by all means, but they bear little fruit. What does bear 
  great fruit, however, is the ceremony of the Dhamma. This involves 
  proper behavior towards servants and employees, respect for teachers, 
  restraint towards living beings, and generosity towards ascetics and 
  Brahmans. These and other things constitute the ceremony of the 
  Dhamma. Therefore a father, a son, a brother, a master, a friend, a 
  companion, and even a neighbor should say: "This is good, this is the 
  ceremony that should be performed until its purpose is fulfilled, this 
  I shall do."[18] Other ceremonies are of doubtful fruit, for they may 
  achieve their purpose, or they may not, and even if they do, it is 
  only in this world. But the ceremony of the Dhamma is timeless. Even 
  if it does not achieve its purpose in this world, it produces great 
  merit in the next, whereas if it does achieve its purpose in this 
  world, one gets great merit both here and there through the ceremony 
  of the Dhamma.
  
  
  
                                   10
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not consider glory and fame 
  to be of great account unless they are achieved through having my 
  subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both now and in the 
  future.[19] For this alone does Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, 
  desire glory and fame. And whatever efforts Beloved-of-the-Gods, King 
  Piyadasi, is making, all of that is only for the welfare of the people 
  in the next world, and that they will have little evil. And being 
  without merit is evil. This is difficult for either a humble person or 
  a great person to do except with great effort, and by giving up other 
  interests. In fact, it may be even more difficult for a great person 
  to do.
  
  
  
                                   11
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[20] There is no gift 
  like the gift of the Dhamma,[21] (no acquaintance like) acquaintance 
  with Dhamma, (no distribution like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no 
  kinship like) kinship through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper 
  behavior towards servants and employees, respect for mother and 
  father, generosity to friends, companions, relations, Brahmans and 
  ascetics, and not killing living beings. Therefore a father, a son, a 
  brother, a master, a friend, a companion or a neighbor should say: 
  "This is good, this should be done." One benefits in this world and 
  gains great merit in the next by giving the gift of the Dhamma.
  
  
  
                                   12
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the 
  householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts and 
  honors of various kinds.[22] But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, 
  does not value gifts and honors as much as he values this -- that 
  there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.[23] Growth 
  in essentials can be done in different ways, but all of them have as 
  their root restraint in speech, that is, not praising one's own 
  religion, or condemning the religion of others without good cause. And 
  if there is cause for criticism, it should be done in a mild way. But 
  it is better to honor other religions for this reason. By so doing, 
  one's own religion benefits, and so do other religions, while doing 
  otherwise harms one's own religion and the religions of others. 
  Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and 
  condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," 
  only harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is 
  good.[24] One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by 
  others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be 
  well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions.
  
    Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as 
  much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all 
  religions. And to this end many are working --  Dhamma Mahamatras, 
  Mahamatras in charge of the women's quarters, officers in charge of 
  outlying areas, and other such officers. And the fruit of this is that 
  one's own religion grows and the Dhamma is illuminated also.
  
  
  
                                   13
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years 
  after his coronation.[25] One hundred and fifty thousand were 
  deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from 
  other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the 
  Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the 
  Kalingas. 
  
    Indeed, Beloved-of-the-Gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying 
  and deportation that take place when an unconquered country is 
  conquered. But Beloved-of-the-Gods is pained even more by this -- that 
  Brahmans, ascetics, and householders of different religions who live 
  in those countries, and who are respectful to superiors, to mother and 
  father, to elders, and who behave properly and have strong loyalty 
  towards friends, acquaintances, companions, relatives, servants and 
  employees -- that they are injured, killed or separated from their 
  loved ones. Even those who are not affected (by all this) suffer when 
  they see friends, acquaintances, companions and relatives affected. 
  These misfortunes befall all (as a result of war), and this pains 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods.
  
    There is no country, except among the Greeks, where these two 
  groups, Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country 
  where people are not devoted to one or another religion.[26] Therefore 
  the killing, death or deportation of a hundredth, or even a thousandth 
  part of those who died during the conquest of Kalinga now pains 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods thinks that even those 
  who do wrong should be forgiven where forgiveness is possible.
    
    Even the forest people, who live in Beloved-of-the-Gods' domain, 
  are entreated and reasoned with to act properly. They are told that 
  despite his remorse Beloved-of-the-Gods has the power to punish them 
  if necessary, so that they should be ashamed of their wrong and not be 
  killed. Truly, Beloved-of-the-Gods desires non-injury, restraint and 
  impartiality to all beings, even where wrong has been done.
    
    Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to 
  be the best conquest.[27] And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won 
  here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek 
  king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, 
  Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the 
  Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.[28] Here in the king's 
  domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, 
  the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere 
  people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even 
  where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, 
  having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and 
  instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it 
  and will continue to do so. This conquest has been won everywhere, and 
  it gives great joy -- the joy which only conquest by Dhamma can give. 
  But even this joy is of little consequence. Beloved-of-the-Gods 
  considers the great fruit to be experienced in the next world to be 
  more important.
    
    I have had this Dhamma edict written so that my sons and 
  great-grandsons may not consider making new conquests, or that if 
  military conquests are made, that they be done with forbearance and 
  light punishment, or better still, that they consider making conquest 
  by Dhamma only, for that bears fruit in this world and the next. May 
  all their intense devotion be given to this which has a result in this 
  world and the next.
  
  
  
                                   14
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had these Dhamma edicts 
  written in brief, in medium length, and in extended form.[29] Not all 
  of them occur everywhere, for my domain is vast, but much has been 
  written, and I will have still more written. And also there are some 
  subjects here that have been spoken of again and again because of 
  their sweetness, and so that the people may act in accordance with 
  them. If some things written are incomplete, this is because of the 
  locality, or in consideration of the object, or due to the fault of 
  the scribe.
  
  
                                 * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                          KALINGA ROCK EDICTS
  
  
  
                                   1
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods says that the Mahamatras of Tosali who are 
  judicial officers in the city are to be told this:[30] I wish to see 
  that everything I consider to be proper is carried out in the right 
  way. And I consider instructing you to be the best way of 
  accomplishing this. I have placed you over many thousands of people 
  that you may win the people's affection.
  
    All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I 
  desire their welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, 
  that I desire for all men. You do not understand to what extent I 
  desire this, and if some of you do understand, you do not understand 
  the full extent of my desire.
    
    You must attend to this matter. While being completely law-abiding, 
  some people are imprisoned, treated harshly and even killed without 
  cause so that many people suffer. Therefore your aim should be to act 
  with impartiality. It is because of these things -- envy, anger, 
  cruelty, hate, indifference, laziness or tiredness -- that such a 
  thing does not happen. Therefore your aim should be: "May these things 
  not be in me." And the root of this is non-anger and patience. Those 
  who are bored with the administration of justice will not be promoted; 
  (those who are not) will move upwards and be promoted. Whoever among 
  you understands this should say to his colleagues: "See that you do 
  your duty properly. Such and such are Beloved-of-the-Gods' 
  instructions." Great fruit will result from doing your duty, while 
  failing in it will result in gaining neither heaven nor the king's 
  pleasure. Failure in duty on your part will not please me. But done 
  properly, it will win you heaven and you will be discharging your 
  debts to me.
    
    This edict is to be listened to on Tisa day, between Tisa days, and 
  on other suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by a single 
  person. Acting thus, you will be doing your duty.
    
    This edict has been written for the following purpose: that the 
  judicial officers of the city may strive to do their duty and that the 
  people under them might not suffer unjust imprisonment or harsh 
  treatment. To achieve this, I will send out Mahamatras every five 
  years who are not harsh or cruel, but who are merciful and who can 
  ascertain if the judicial officers have understood my purpose and are 
  acting according to my instructions. Similarly, from Ujjayini, the 
  prince will send similar persons with the same purpose without 
  allowing three years to elapse. Likewise from Takhasila also. When 
  these Mahamatras go on tours of inspection each year, then without 
  neglecting their normal duties, they will ascertain if judicial 
  officers are acting according to the king's instructions.
  
  
  
                                   2
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[31] This royal order is to be 
  addressed to the Mahamatras at Samapa. I wish to see that everything I 
  consider to be proper is carried out in the right way. And I consider 
  instructing you to be the best way of accomplishing this. All men are 
  my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their 
  welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire 
  for all men.[32]
    
    The people of the unconquered territories beyond the borders might 
  think: "What is the king's intentions towards us?" My only intention 
  is that they live without fear of me, that they may trust me and that 
  I may give them happiness, not sorrow. Furthermore, they should 
  understand that the king will forgive those who can be forgiven, and 
  that he wishes to encourage them to practice Dhamma so that they may 
  attain happiness in this world and the next. I am telling you this so 
  that I may discharge the debts I owe, and that in instructing you, 
  that you may know that my vow and my promise will not be broken. 
  Therefore acting in this way, you should perform your duties and 
  assure them (the people beyond the borders) that: "The king is like a 
  father. He feels towards us as he feels towards himself. We are to him 
  like his own children."
    
    By instructing you and informing you of my vow and my promise I 
  shall be applying myself in complete fullness to achieving this 
  object. You are able indeed to inspire them with confidence and to 
  secure their welfare and happiness in this world and the next, and by 
  acting thus, you will attain heaven as well as discharge the debts you 
  owe to me. And so that the Mahamatras can devote themselves at all 
  times to inspiring the border areas with confidence and encouraging 
  them to practice Dhamma, this edict has been written here.
    
    This edict is to be listened to every four months on Tisa day, 
  between Tisa days, and on other suitable occasions, it should be 
  listened to even by a single person. Acting thus, you will be doing 
  your duty.
    
    
                                 * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                           MINOR ROCK EDICTS
  
  
  
                                   1
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[33] It is now more than two and a 
  half years since I became a lay-disciple, but until now I have not 
  been very zealous.[34] But now that I have visited the Sangha for more 
  than a year, I have become very zealous. Now the people in India who 
  have not associated with the gods do so. This is the result of zeal 
  and it is not just the great who can do this. Even the humble, if they 
  are zealous, can attain heaven. And this proclamation has been made 
  with this aim. Let both humble and great be zealous, let even those on 
  the borders know and let zeal last long. Then this zeal will increase, 
  it will greatly increase, it will increase up to one-and-a-half times. 
  This message has been proclaimed two hundred and fifty-six times by 
  the king while on tour.
  
  
  
                                   2
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[35] Father and mother should be 
  respected and so should elders, kindness to living beings should be 
  made strong and the truth should be spoken. In these ways, the Dhamma 
  should be promoted. Likewise, a teacher should be honored by his pupil 
  and proper manners should be shown towards relations. This is an 
  ancient rule that conduces to long life. Thus should one act. Written 
  by the scribe Chapala.
  
  
  
                                   3
  
  Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them good 
  health and happiness, speaks thus:[36] You know, reverend sirs, how 
  great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever, 
  reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is 
  well-spoken.[37] I consider it proper, reverend sirs, to advise on how 
  the good Dhamma should last long.
  
    These Dhamma texts -- Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way 
  of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse 
  on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which 
  was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech -- these Dhamma 
  texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may 
  constantly listen to and remember.[38] Likewise the laymen and 
  laywomen. I have had this written that you may know my intentions.
  
  
                                 * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                        THE SEVEN PILLAR EDICTS
  
  
  
                                   1
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[39] This Dhamma edict was written 
  twenty-six years after my coronation. Happiness in this world and the 
  next is difficult to obtain without much love for the Dhamma, much 
  self-examination, much respect, much fear (of evil), and much 
  enthusiasm. But through my instruction this regard for Dhamma and love 
  of Dhamma has grown day by day, and will continue to grow. And my 
  officers of high, low and middle rank are practicing and conforming to 
  Dhamma, and are capable of inspiring others to do the same. Mahamatras 
  in border areas are doing the same. And these are my instructions: to 
  protect with Dhamma, to make happiness through Dhamma and to guard 
  with Dhamma.
  
  
  
                                   2
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Dhamma is good, but 
  what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, 
  kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. I have given the gift 
  of sight in various ways.[40] To two-footed and four-footed beings, to 
  birds and aquatic animals, I have given various things including the 
  gift of life. And many other good deeds have been done by me.
  
    This Dhamma edict has been written that people might follow it and 
  it might endure for a long time. And the one who follows it properly 
  will do something good.
  
  
  
                                   3
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: People see only their 
  good deeds saying, "I have done this good deed." But they do not see 
  their evil deeds saying, "I have done this evil deed" or "This is 
  called evil." But this (tendency) is difficult to see.[41] One should 
  think like this: "It is these things that lead to evil, to violence, 
  to cruelty, anger, pride and jealousy. Let me not ruin myself with 
  these things." And further, one should think: "This leads to happiness 
  in this world and the next."
  
  
  
                                   4
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: This Dhamma edict was written 
  twenty-six years after my coronation. My Rajjukas are working among 
  the people, among many hundreds of thousands of people. The hearing of 
  petitions and the administration of justice has been left to them so 
  that they can do their duties confidently and fearlessly and so that 
  they can work for the welfare, happiness and benefit of the people in 
  the country. But they should remember what causes happiness and 
  sorrow, and being themselves devoted to Dhamma, they should encourage 
  the people in the country (to do the same), that they may attain 
  happiness in this world and the next. These Rajjukas are eager to 
  serve me. They also obey other officers who know my desires, who 
  instruct the Rajjukas so that they can please me. Just as a person 
  feels confident having entrusted his child to an expert nurse 
  thinking: "The nurse will keep my child well," even so, the Rajjukas 
  have been appointed by me for the welfare and happiness of the people 
  in the country.
  
    The hearing of petitions and the administration of justice have 
  been left to the Rajjukas so that they can do their duties 
  unperturbed, fearlessly and confidently. It is my desire that there 
  should be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I even go 
  this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who have been 
  tried and sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can 
  make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared. If there is none to 
  appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give gifts in order to make 
  merit for the next world, or observe fasts. Indeed, it is my wish that 
  in this way, even if a prisoner's time is limited, he can prepare for 
  the next world, and that people's Dhamma practice, self-control and 
  generosity may grow.
  
  
  
                                   5
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Twenty-six years 
  after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected  -- 
  parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks, //nandimukhas, 
  gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, 
  //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, 
  deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons 
  and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible.[42] 
  Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk 
  to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six 
  months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings 
  are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without 
  reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another. 
  On the three Caturmasis, the three days of Tisa and during the 
  fourteenth and fifteenth of the Uposatha, fish are protected and not 
  to be sold. During these days animals are not to be killed in the 
  elephant reserves or the fish reserves either. On the eighth of every 
  fortnight, on the fourteenth and fifteenth, on Tisa, Punarvasu, the 
  three Caturmasis and other auspicious days, bulls are not to be 
  castrated, billy goats, rams, boars and other animals that are usually 
  castrated are not to be. On Tisa, Punarvasu, Caturmasis and the 
  fortnight of Caturmasis, horses and bullocks are not be branded.
  
    In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been 
  given amnesty on twenty-five occasions.
  
  
  
                                   6
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I 
  started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of 
  the people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the 
  Dhamma. Thinking: "How can the welfare and happiness of the people be 
  secured?" I give attention to my relatives, to those dwelling near and 
  those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act 
  accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honored all 
  religions with various honors. But I consider it best to meet with 
  people personally.
  
    This Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation.
  
  
  
                                   7
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: In the past kings desired that the 
  people might grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. But despite 
  this, people did not grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, said concerning this: "It occurs 
  to me that in the past kings desired that the people might grow 
  through the promotion of the Dhamma. But despite this, people did not 
  grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. Now how can the people be 
  encouraged to follow it? How can the people be encouraged to grow 
  through the promotion of the Dhamma? How can I elevate them by 
  promoting the Dhamma?" Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, further 
  said concerning this: "It occurs to me that I shall have proclamations 
  on Dhamma announced and instruction on Dhamma given. When people hear 
  these, they will follow them, elevate themselves and grow considerably 
  through the promotion of the Dhamma." It is for this purpose that 
  proclamations on Dhamma have been announced and various instructions 
  on Dhamma have been given and that officers who work among many 
  promote and explain them in detail. The Rajjukas who work among 
  hundreds of thousands of people have likewise been ordered: "In this 
  way and that encourage those who are devoted to Dhamma." 
  Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: "Having this object in view, I have 
  set up Dhamma pillars, appointed Dhamma Mahamatras, and announced 
  Dhamma proclamations."
  
    Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, says: Along roads I have had 
  banyan trees planted so that they can give shade to animals and men, 
  and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight //krosas//, 
  I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have 
  had watering-places made for the use of animals and men. But these are 
  but minor achievements. Such things to make the people happy have been 
  done by former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, that 
  the people might practice the Dhamma.
    
    Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: My Dhamma 
  Mahamatras too are occupied with various good works among the ascetics 
  and householders of all religions. I have ordered that they should be 
  occupied with the affairs of the Sangha. I have also ordered that they 
  should be occupied with the affairs of the Brahmans and the Ajivikas. 
  I have ordered that they be occupied with the Niganthas.[43] In fact, 
  I have ordered that different Mahamatras be occupied with the 
  particular affairs of all different religions. And my Dhamma 
  Mahamatras likewise are occupied with these and other religions.
    
    Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: These and other 
  principal officers are occupied with the distribution of gifts, mine 
  as well as those of the queens. In my women's quarters, they organize 
  various charitable activities here and in the provinces. I have also 
  ordered my sons and the sons of other queens to distribute gifts so 
  that noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma may be promoted. 
  And noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma consist of having 
  kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness 
  increase among the people.
    
    Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Whatever good 
  deeds have been done by me, those the people accept and those they 
  follow. Therefore they have progressed and will continue to progress 
  by being respectful to mother and father, respectful to elders, by 
  courtesy to the aged and proper behavior towards Brahmans and 
  ascetics, towards the poor and distressed, and even towards servants 
  and employees.
    
    Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: This progress 
  among the people through Dhamma has been done by two means, by Dhamma 
  regulations and by persuasion. Of these, Dhamma regulation is of 
  little effect, while persuasion has much more effect. The Dhamma 
  regulations I have given are that various animals must be protected. 
  And I have given many other Dhamma regulations also. But it is by 
  persuasion that progress among the people through Dhamma has had a 
  greater effect in respect of harmlessness to living beings and 
  non-killing of living beings.
    
    Concerning this, Beloved-of-the-Gods says: Wherever there are stone 
  pillars or stone slabs, there this Dhamma edict is to be engraved so 
  that it may long endure. It has been engraved so that it may endure as 
  long as my sons and great-grandsons live and as long as the sun and 
  the moon shine, and so that people may practice it as instructed. For 
  by practicing it happiness will be attained in this world and the 
  next.
    
    This Dhamma edict has been written by me twenty-seven years after 
  my coronation.
  
                                 * * *
                                          
  
  
                        THE MINOR PILLAR EDICTS
  
  
  
                                   1
  
  Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, 
  visited this place and worshipped because here the Buddha, the sage of 
  the Sakyans, was born.[44] He had a stone figure and a pillar set up 
  and because the Lord was born here, the village of Lumbini was 
  exempted from tax and required to pay only one eighth of the produce.
  
  
  
                                   2
  
  Beloved-of-the-Gods commands:[45] The Mahamatras at Kosambi (are to be 
  told: Whoever splits the Sangha) which is now united, is not to be 
  admitted into the Sangha. Whoever, whether monk or nun, splits the 
  Sangha is to be made to wear white clothes and to reside somewhere 
  other than in a monastery.[46]
  
                            * * * * * * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                 NOTES
  
  
  1. Girnar version issued in 257 B.C. These fourteen edicts, with minor 
      differences, are found in five different places throughout India. 
      In two other places, they are found minus numbers 11, 12 and 13.
  
  2. Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
  
  3. The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples living outside 
      Asoka's empire. The Satiyaputras and Keralaputras lived on the 
      southwest seaboard of India. Tamraparni is one of the ancient 
      names for Sri Lanka. On Antiochos see Note 28.
  
  4. By so doing, Asoka was following the advice given by the  Buddha at 
      Samyutta Nikaya, I:33.
  
  5. Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
  
  6. The exact duties of these royal officers are not known.
  
  7. Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
  
  8. This probably refers to the drum that was beaten to announce the 
      punishment of lawbreakers. See Samyutta Nikaya, IV:244.
  
  9. Like many people in the ancient world, Asoka believed that when a 
      just king ruled, there would be many auspicious portents.
  
  10. Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  11. This seems to be a paraphrase of Dhammapada 163.
  
  12. The Greeks (Yona) settled in large numbers in what is now 
      Afghanistan and Pakistan after the conquests of Alexander the 
      Great, although small communities lived there prior to this.
  
  13. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C..
  
  14. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  15. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  16. Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment, was known in 
      ancient times as either Sambodhi or Vajirasana.
  
  17. Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Asoka obviously had the Mangala 
      Sutta (Sutta Nipata 258-269) in mind when he issued this edict. 
      The word here translated as ceremony is //mangala//.
  
  18. Other versions substitute the following up to the end of the 
      edict.
  
      It has also been said: "Generosity is good." But there is no gift 
      or benefit like the gift of the Dhamma or benefit like the benefit 
      of the Dhamma. There a friend, a well-wisher, a relative or a 
      companion should encourage others thus on appropriate occasions: 
      "This should be done, this is good, by doing this, one can attain 
      heaven." And what greater achievement is there than this, to 
      attain heaven?
  
  19. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  20. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  21. Similar to Dhammapada 354.
  
  22. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  23. Asoka probably believed that the essentials (//saravadi//) of all 
      religions were their ethical principles.
  
  24. (//Ta samavayo eva sadhu//). This sentence is usually translated 
      "Therefore concord is commendable." //Samavayo// however comes 
      from //sam// + //ava// + //i//, "to come together."
  
  25. Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Kalinga corresponds roughly to 
      the modern state of Orissa.
  
  26. The Buddha pointed out that the four castes of Indian society 
      likewise were not found among the Greeks; see Majjhima Nikaya, 
      II:149.
  
  27. Perhaps Asoka had in mind Dhammapada 103-104.
  
  28. Antiochos II Theos of Syria (261-246 B.C.), Ptolemy II 
      Philadelphos of Egypt (285-247 B.C.), Antigonos Gonatos of 
      Macedonia (278-239 B.C.), Magas of Cyrene (300-258 B.C.) and 
      Alexander of Epirus (272-258 B.C.).
  
  29. Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  30. Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C. These two edicts are found in 
      two different places.
  
  31. Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C.
  
  32. This is reminiscent of the Buddha's words: "Just as a mother would 
      protect her only child even at the risk of her own life, even so, 
      let one cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings." Sutta 
      Nipata 149.
  
  33. Gavimath version, issued in 257 B.C. This edict is found in twelve 
      different places.
  
  34. First Asoka was a lay-disciple (//upasaka//) and then he visited 
      or literally "went to the Sangha" (//yam me samghe upeti//). Some 
      scholars think this means that Asoka became a monk. However it 
      probably means that he started visiting Buddhist monks more often 
      and listening to their instructions more carefully.
  
  35. Brahmagiri version.
  
  36. This edict was found inscribed on a small rock near the town of 
      Bairat and is now housed at the Asiatic Society in Calcutta. Its 
      date is not known.
  
  37. This sentence is the converse of a similar one in the Tipitaka: 
      "...that which is well-spoken is the words of the Lord." Anguttara 
      Nikaya, IV:164.
  
  38. There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali 
      suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably 
      the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98-100. Aliya vasani: 
      either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the 
      Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27-28. Anagata bhayani: 
      probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: 
      Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207-221. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, 
      Sutta Nipata 955-975. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima 
      Nikaya, I:421.
  
  39. The following seven edicts are from the Delhi Topra version, the 
      first six being issued in 243 B.C. and the seventh in 242 B.C. The 
      first six edicts also appear on five other pillars.
  
  40. //Cakhu dane//. The meaning is unclear. It may mean that Asoka has 
      given "the eye of wisdom," but taking into account the context, it 
      more likely means he has stopped blinding as a form of punishment.
  
  41. Similar to the ideas expressed by the Buddha in Dhammapada 50 and 
      252.
  
  42. The identification of many of these animals is conjectural.
  
  43. The Ajivikas were a sect of ascetics in ancient India established 
      by Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha. The Niganthas 
      are the Jains.
  
  44. This inscription is found on a pillar in Lumbini where the Buddha 
      was born. It was issued in 249 B.C., probably at the time of 
      Asoka's visit to the place.
  
  45. Allahabad version, date of issue not known. The words in brackets 
      are missing due to damage on the pillar, but they can be 
      reconstructed from the three other versions of this edict.
  
  46. The white clothes of the lay followers rather than the yellow robe 
      of a monk or nun.
  
                            * * * * * * * *
  
  
  
  
                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
  
  
  D. R. Bhandarkar, //Asoka//. Calcutta, 1955
  
  R. Mookerji, //Asoka//. Delhi, 1962
  
  A. Sen, //Asoka's Edicts//.  Calcutta, 1956
  
  A. Seneviratna (editor), //King Asoka and Buddhism//. Kandy. Scheduled 
     for 1993.
  
  D. C. Sircar, //Inscriptions of Asoka//. Delhi, 1957
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *


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