  
                      THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
                                          
                         The Sammaditthi Sutta
                           and its Commentary

             
                      Translated from the Pali by
                            Bhikkhu Nanamoli
                                          
                         Edited and Revised by
                             Bhikkhu Bodhi



                    The Wheel Publication No. 377/379
                           ISBN 955-24-0079-1

                           Published in 1991
  
                      BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
                      KANDY              SRI LANKA
                                          
                                          
              Copyright 1991 Buddhist Publication Society

                                 * * *
                                          
                         DharmaNet Edition 1994
                                          
        This electronic edition is offered for free distribution
            via DharmaNet by arrangement with the publisher.
                                          
                        DharmaNet International
                 P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley CA 94704-4951
                                          
                            * * * * * * * *
  
                                          
                                          
                             THE TRANSLATOR
                                          
  Bhikkhu Nanamoli was born in England in 1905 and graduated from Exeter 
  College, Oxford. In 1948 he came to Sri Lanka, where he was ordained 
  the following year at the Island Hermitage near Dodanduwa. During his 
  11 years in the Sangha Ven. Nanamoli translated into lucid English 
  some of the most difficult texts of Theravada Buddhism. In 1960, on 
  one of his rare outings from the Hermitage, he suddenly passed away 
  due to heart failure.
  
  
                               THE EDITOR
  
  Bhikkhu Bodhi is a Buddhist monk of American nationality, born in New 
  York City in 1944. After completing a doctorate in philosophy at 
  Claremont Graduate School, he came to Sri Lanka in 1972, and was 
  ordained the same year under the eminent scholar-monk, Ven. Balangoda 
  Ananda Maitreya. Since 1984 he has been Editor for the Buddhist 
  Publication Society, and its President since 1988.
  
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *
  
  
  
  
      Bhikkhus, just as the dawn is the forerunner and first 
      indication of the rising of the sun, so is right view the 
      forerunner and first indication of wholesome states.
      
      For one of right view, bhikkhus, right intention springs up. 
      For one of right intention, right speech springs up. For one of 
      right speech, right action springs up. For one of right action, 
      right livelihood springs up. For one of right livelihood, right 
      effort springs up. For one of right effort, right mindfulness 
      springs up. For one of right mindfulness, right concentration 
      springs up. For one of right concentration, right knowledge 
      springs up. For one of right knowledge, right deliverance 
      springs up.
  
                                          Anguttara Nikaya 10:121
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                              INTRODUCTION
  
  The Sammaditthi Sutta, the Discourse on Right View, is the ninth sutta 
  of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Collection of Middle Length Discourses. 
  Its expositor is the Venerable Sariputta Thera, the Buddha's chief 
  disciple and the foremost of the Master's bhikkhu disciples in the 
  exercise of the faculty of wisdom. The Buddha declared that next to 
  himself, it was the Venerable Sariputta who excelled in turning the 
  incomparable Wheel of the Dhamma, in expounding in depth and in detail 
  the Four Noble Truths realized with the attainment of enlightenment. 
  In the Sammaditthi Sutta the great disciple bears ample testimony to 
  the Buddha's words of praise, bequeathing upon us a discourse that has 
  served as a primer of Buddhist doctrine for generations of monks in 
  the monasteries of South and Southeast Asia.
    
    As its title suggests, the subject of the Sammaditthi Sutta is 
  right view. The analysis of right view undertaken in the sutta brings 
  us to the very core of the Dhamma, since right view constitutes the 
  correct understanding of the central teachings of the Buddha, the 
  teachings which confer upon the Buddha's doctrine its own unique and 
  distinctive stamp. Though the practice of right mindfulness has 
  rightly been extolled as the crest jewel of the Buddha's teaching, it 
  cannot be stressed strongly enough that the practice of mindfulness, 
  or any other approach to meditation, only becomes an effective 
  instrument of liberation to the extent that it is founded upon and 
  guided by right view. Hence, to confirm the importance of right view, 
  the Buddha places it at the very beginning of the Noble Eightfold 
  Path. Elsewhere in the Suttas the Buddha calls right view the 
  forerunner of the path (//pubbangama//), which gives direction and 
  efficacy to the other seven path factors. 
    
    Right view, as explained in the commentary to the Sammaditthi 
  Sutta, has a variety of aspects, but it might best be considered as 
  twofold: conceptual right view, which is the intellectual grasp of the 
  principles enunciated in the Buddha's teaching, and experiential right 
  view, which is the wisdom that arises by direct penetration of the 
  teaching. Conceptual right view, also called the right view in 
  conformity with the truths (//saccanulomika-sammaditthi//), is a 
  correct conceptual understanding of the Dhamma arrived at by study of 
  the Buddha's teachings and deep examination of their meaning. Such 
  understanding, though conceptual rather than experiential, is not dry 
  and sterile. When rooted in faith in the Triple Gem and driven by a 
  keen aspiration to realize the truth embedded in the formulated 
  principles of the Dhamma, it serves as a critical phase in the 
  development of wisdom (//panna//), for it provides the germ out of 
  which experiential right view gradually evolves.
    
    Experiential right view is the penetration of the truth of the 
  teaching in one's own immediate experience. Thus it is also called 
  right view that penetrates the truths 
  (//saccapativedha-sammaditthi//). This type of right view is aroused 
  by the practice of insight meditation guided by a correct conceptual 
  understanding of the Dhamma. To arrive at direct penetration, one must 
  begin with a correct conceptual grasp of the teaching and transform 
  that grasp from intellectual comprehension to direct perception by 
  cultivating the threefold training in morality, concentration and 
  wisdom. If conceptual right view van be compared to a hand, a hand 
  that grasps the truth by way of concepts, then experiential right view 
  can be compared to an eye -- the eye of wisdom that sees directly into 
  the true nature of existence ordinarily hidden from us by our greed, 
  aversion and delusion. 
    
    The Discourse on Right View is intended to elucidate the principles 
  that are to be comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated by 
  experiential right view. The Venerable Sariputta expounds these 
  principles under sixteen headings: the wholesome and the unwholesome, 
  the four nutriments of life, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve factors 
  of dependent arising, and the taints as the condition for ignorance. 
  It will be noted that from the second section to the end of the sutta, 
  all the expositions are framed in accordance with the same structure, 
  which reveals the principle of conditionality as the scaffolding for 
  the entire teaching. Each phenomenon to be comprehended by right view 
  is expounded in terms of its individual nature, its arising, its 
  cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. The grasp of this 
  principle thus makes it clear that any entity taken for examination is 
  not an isolated occurrence with its being locked up in itself, but 
  part of a web of conditionally arisen processes that can be terminated 
  by understanding and eliminating the cause that gives it being.
    
    The right view arrived at by penetrating any of the sixteen 
  subjects expounded in the sutta is discussed in terms of two aspects, 
  both aspects of supramundane penetration. The first is the initial 
  penetration of the supramundane path that transforms a person from a 
  worldling (//puthujjana//) into a stream-enterer (//sotapanna//), a 
  noble disciple who has entered irreversibly upon the stream to 
  liberation. This aspect of right view is indicated by the words that 
  open each section, "(one) who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma." These qualities are attributes only 
  of the stream-enterer and those of higher attainment along the path. 
  The description thus applies to the trainee (//sekha//), the disciple 
  who has entered the path but has not yet reached its end. The words 
  signify right view as a transformative vision which has revealed the 
  ultimate truths underlying our existence, but which must still be 
  developed further to complete the full transformation it is capable of 
  effecting.
    
    The second aspect of supramundane right view is indicated by the 
  closing words of each section, from "he entirely abandons the 
  underlying tendency to lust" to "he here and now makes an end of 
  suffering." This description is fully applicable only to the Arahant, 
  the liberated one, and thus indicates that the right view conceptually 
  grasped by the wise worldling, and transformed into direct perception 
  with the attainment of stream-entry, reaches its consummation with the 
  arrival at the teaching's final goal, the attainment of complete 
  emancipation from suffering.
    
    
                                 * * *
    
    
    The translation of the Sammaditthi Sutta and its commentary 
  presented here has been adapted from manuscripts left behind by 
  Bhikkhu Nanamoli. The translation of the sutta has been adapted from 
  Ven. Nanamoli's complete translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. The 
  version used has been taken from the edition of the complete Majjhima 
  Nikaya translation that I prepared for publication  by Wisdom 
  Publications in the United States. This version, tentatively scheduled 
  for release in late 1992, employs extensive substitution of Ven. 
  Nanamoli's own technical terminology with my own preferred renderings 
  of Pali doctrinal terms.
    
    The commentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta is from the Papancasudani, 
  Acariya Buddhaghosa's complete commentary (//atthakatha//) to the 
  Majjhima Nikaya. The translation of the commentary has also been 
  adapted from a rendering by Ven. Nanamoli, contained in a notebook of 
  his that was discovered only a few years ago at Island Hermitage. The 
  terminology used in the notebook version suggests that it was one of 
  Ven. Nanamoli's earliest attempts at translation from the Pali; it 
  certainly preceded his translation of the Visuddhimagga, The Path of 
  Purification, first completed at the end of 1953. In adapting the 
  translation, I have naturally replaced the technical terminology used 
  in the notebook version with that used in the sutta. In places I also 
  decided to translate directly from the Pali text rather than adhere to 
  Ven. Nanamoli's rendering, which sometimes tended to be literal to the 
  point of awkwardness. A few passages from the commentary that are 
  concerned solely with linguistic clarification have been omitted from 
  the translation.
    
    Passages in the commentarial section enclosed in square brackets 
  are taken from the subcommentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta, by Acariya 
  Dhammapala. Passages in parenthesis are additions either by Ven. 
  Nanamoli or by myself. The paragraph numbering of the commentarial 
  section follows that of the sutta. The phrases of the sutta that are 
  selected for comment have been set in boldface. The backnotes are 
  entirely my own.
  
                                          Bhikkhu Bodhi
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *
  
  
  
  
                                PART ONE:
  
                      THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
                                          
                          (Sammaditthi Sutta)
  
  
  
  
  1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at 
  Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There the Venerable 
  Sariputta addressed the bhikkhus thus: "Friends, bhikkhus." -- 
  "Friend," they replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
  
    2. "'One of right view, one of right view' is said, friends. In 
  what way is a noble disciple one of right view, whose view is 
  straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at 
  this true Dhamma?" 
    
    "Indeed, friend, we would come from far away to learn from the 
  Venerable Sariputta the meaning of this statement. It would be good if 
  the Venerable Sariputta would explain the meaning of this statement. 
  Having heard it from him, the bhikkhus will remember it." 
    
    "Then, friends, listen and attend closely to what I shall say." 
    
    "Yes, friend," the bhikkhus replied. The Venerable Sariputta said 
  this:
    
    
  
  The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  3. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the unwholesome, the 
  root of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome, 
  in that way he is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has 
  perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
  
    4. "And what, friends, is the unwholesome, what is the root of the 
  unwholesome, what is the wholesome, what is the root of the wholesome? 
  Killing living beings is unwholesome; taking what is not given is 
  unwholesome; misconduct in sensual pleasures is unwholesome; false 
  speech is unwholesome; malicious speech is unwholesome; harsh speech 
  is unwholesome; gossip is unwholesome; covetousness is unwholesome; 
  ill will is unwholesome; wrong view is unwholesome. This is called the 
  unwholesome.
    
    5. "And what is the root of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the 
  unwholesome; hate is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root of 
  the unwholesome. This is called the root of the unwholesome.
    
    6. "And what is the wholesome? Abstention from killing living 
  beings is wholesome; abstention from taking what is not given is 
  wholesome; abstention from misconduct in sensual pleasures is 
  wholesome; abstention from false speech is wholesome; abstention from 
  malicious speech is wholesome; abstention from harsh speech is 
  wholesome; abstention from gossip is wholesome; non-covetousness is 
  wholesome; non-ill will is wholesome; right view is wholesome. This is 
  called the wholesome.
  
    7. "And what is the root of the wholesome? Non-greed is a root of 
  the wholesome; non-hate is a root of the wholesome; non-delusion is a 
  root of the wholesome. This is called the root of the wholesome.
    
    8. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the unwholesome, the 
  root of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome, 
  he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes the 
  underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency 
  to the view and conceit 'I am,' and by abandoning ignorance and 
  arousing true knowledge he here and now makes an end of suffering. In 
  that way too a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is 
  straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at 
  this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Nutriment
  ~~~~~~~~~
  9. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    10. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands nutriment, the 
  origin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of nutriment, in that way he is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    11. "And what is nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what 
  is the cessation of nutriment, what is the way leading to the 
  cessation of nutriment? There are these four kinds of nutriment for 
  the maintenance of beings that already have come to be and for the 
  support of those seeking a new existence. What four? They are physical 
  food as nutriment, gross or subtle; contact as the second; mental 
  volition as the third; and consciousness as the fourth. With the 
  arising of craving there is the arising of nutriment. With the 
  cessation of craving there is the cessation of nutriment. The way 
  leading to the cessation of nutriment is just this Noble Eightfold 
  Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right 
  action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right 
  concentration.
    
    12. "When a noble disciple has thus understood nutriment, the 
  origin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of nutriment, he entirely abandons the underlying 
  tendency to greed, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, 
  he extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,' 
  and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and 
  now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one 
  of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in 
  the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  The Four Noble Truths
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  13. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
  
    14. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the 
  origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of suffering, in that way he is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    15. "And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what 
  is the cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the 
  cessation of suffering? Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; 
  sickness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, 
  grief and despair are suffering; not to obtain what one wants is 
  suffering; in short, the five aggregates affected by clinging are 
  suffering. This is called suffering.
    
    16. "And what is the origin of suffering? It is craving, which 
  brings renewal of being, is accompanied by delight and lust, and 
  delights in this and that; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, 
  craving for being and craving for non-being. This is called the origin 
  of suffering.
    
    17. "And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the 
  remainderless fading away and ceasing, the giving up, relinquishing, 
  letting go and rejecting of that same craving. This is called the 
  cessation of suffering.
    
    18. "And what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It 
  is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right 
  concentration. This is called the way leading to the cessation of 
  suffering.
    
    19. "When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the 
  origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of suffering ... he here and now makes an end of 
  suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Aging and Death
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  20. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
  
    21. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands aging and death, 
  the origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and 
  the way leading to the cessation of aging and death, in that way he is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    22. "And what is aging and death, what is the origin of aging and 
  death, what is the cessation of aging and death, what is the way 
  leading to the cessation of aging and death? The aging of beings in 
  the various orders of beings, their old age, brokenness of teeth, 
  grayness of hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of life, weakness of 
  faculties -- this is called aging. The passing of beings out of the 
  various orders of beings, their passing away, dissolution, 
  disappearance, dying, completion of time, dissolution of the 
  aggregates, laying down of the body -- this is called death. So this 
  aging and this death are what is called aging and death. With the 
  arising of birth there is the arising of aging and death. With the 
  cessation of birth there is the cessation of aging and death. The way 
  leading to the cessation of aging and death is just this Noble 
  Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
    
    23. "When a noble disciple has thus understood aging and death, the 
  origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the 
  way leading to the cessation of aging and death ... he here and now 
  makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of 
  right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Birth
  ~~~~~
  24. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    25. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands birth, the origin 
  of birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation 
  of birth, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at 
  this true Dhamma.
    
    26. "And what is birth, what is the origin of birth, what is the 
  cessation of birth, what is the way leading to the cessation of birth? 
  The birth of beings into the various orders of beings, their coming to 
  birth, precipitation (in a womb), generation, manifestation of the 
  aggregates, obtaining the bases for contact -- this is called birth. 
  With the arising of being there is the arising of birth. With the 
  cessation of being there is the cessation of birth. The way leading to 
  the cessation of birth is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, 
  right view ... right concentration.
    
    27. "When a noble disciple has thus understood birth, the origin of 
  birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of 
  birth ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a 
  noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true 
  Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Being
  ~~~~~
  28. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" --  "There 
  might be, friends.
  
    29. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands being, the origin 
  of being, the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation 
  of being, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at 
  this true Dhamma.
    
    30. "And what is being, what is the origin of being, what is the 
  cessation of being, what is the way leading to the cessation of being? 
  There are these three kinds of being: sense-sphere being, 
  fine-material being and immaterial being. With the arising of clinging 
  there is the arising of being. With the cessation of clinging there is 
  the cessation of being. The way leading to the cessation of being is 
  just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right 
  concentration.
    
    31. "When a noble disciple has thus understood being, the origin of 
  being, the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation of 
  being ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a 
  noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true 
  Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Clinging
  ~~~~~~~~
  32. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    33. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands clinging, the 
  origin of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to 
  the cessation of clinging, in that way he is one of right view ... and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    34. "And what is clinging, what is the origin of clinging, what is 
  the cessation of clinging, what is the way leading to the cessation of 
  clinging? There are these four kinds of clinging: clinging to sensual 
  pleasures, clinging to views, clinging to rituals and observances, and 
  clinging to a doctrine of self. With the arising of craving there is 
  the arising of clinging. With the cessation of craving there is the 
  cessation of clinging. The way leading to the cessation of clinging is 
  just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right 
  concentration.
    
    35. "When a noble disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin 
  of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of clinging ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. 
  In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has 
  arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Craving
  ~~~~~~~
  36. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    37. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands craving, the 
  origin of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to 
  the cessation of craving, in that way he is one of right view ... and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    38. "And what is craving, what is the origin of craving, what is 
  the cessation of craving, what is the way leading to the cessation of 
  craving? There are these six classes of craving: craving for forms, 
  craving for sounds, craving for odors, craving for flavors, craving 
  for tangibles, craving for mind-objects. With the arising of feeling 
  there is the arising of craving. With the cessation of feeling there 
  is the cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of 
  craving is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... 
  right concentration.
    
    39. "When a noble disciple has thus understood craving, the origin 
  of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of craving ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In 
  that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived 
  at this true Dhamma."
    
    
    
  Feeling
  ~~~~~~~
  40. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    41. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands feeling, the 
  origin of feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to 
  the cessation of feeling, in that way he is one of right view ... and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    42. "And what is feeling, what is the origin of feeling, what is 
  the cessation of feeling, what is the way leading to the cessation of 
  feeling? There are these six classes of feeling: feeling born of 
  eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born of 
  nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of 
  body-contact, feeling born of mind-contact. With the arising of 
  contact there is the arising of feeling. With the cessation of contact 
  there is the cessation of feeling. The way leading to the cessation of 
  feeling is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... 
  right concentration.
    
    43. "When a noble disciple has thus understood feeling, the origin 
  of feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of feeling ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In 
  that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived 
  at this true Dhamma."
    
    
    
  Contact
  ~~~~~~~
  44. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    45. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands contact, the 
  origin of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to 
  the cessation of contact, in that way he is one of right view ... and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    46. "And what is contact, what is the origin of contact, what is 
  the cessation of contact, what is the way leading to the cessation of 
  contact? There are these six classes of contact: eye-contact, 
  ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, mind-contact. 
  With the arising of the sixfold base there is the arising of contact. 
  With the cessation of the sixfold base there is the cessation of 
  contact. The way leading to the cessation of contact is just this 
  Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
    
    47. "When a noble disciple has thus understood contact, the origin 
  of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of contact ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In 
  that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived 
  at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  The Sixfold Base
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  48. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    49. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the sixfold base, 
  the origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and 
  the way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base, he is one of 
  right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    50. "And what is the sixfold base, what is the origin of the 
  sixfold base, what is the cessation of the sixfold base, what is the 
  way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base? There are these six 
  bases: the eye-base, the ear-base, the nose-base, the tongue-base, the 
  body-base, the mind-base. With the arising of mentality-materiality 
  there is the arising of the sixfold base. With the cessation of 
  mentality-materiality there is the cessation of the sixfold base. The 
  way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base is just this Noble 
  Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
    
    51. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the sixfold base, 
  the origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and 
  the way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base ... he here and 
  now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one 
  of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Mentality-Materiality
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  52.  Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in 
  the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further 
  question: "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble 
  disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true 
  Dhamma?" -- "There might be, friends.
    
    53. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands 
  mentality-materiality, the origin of mentality-materiality, the 
  cessation of mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of mentality-materiality, in that way he is one of right 
  view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    54. "And what is mentality-materiality, what is the origin of 
  mentality-materiality, what is the cessation of mentality-materiality, 
  what is the way leading to the cessation of mentality-materiality? 
  Feeling, perception, volition, contact and attention -- these are 
  called mentality. The four great elements and the material form 
  derived from the four great elements -- these are called materiality. 
  So this mentality and this materiality are what is called 
  mentality-materiality. With the arising of consciousness there is the 
  arising of mentality-materiality. With the cessation of consciousness 
  there is the cessation of mentality-materiality. The way leading to 
  the cessation of mentality-materiality is just this Noble Eightfold 
  Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
    
    55. "When a noble disciple has thus understood 
  mentality-materiality, the origin of mentality-materiality, the 
  cessation of mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the 
  cessation of mentality-materiality ... he here and now makes an end of 
  suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
    
  
  
  Consciousness
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  56. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    57. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands consciousness, the 
  origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way 
  leading to the cessation of consciousness, in that way he is one of 
  right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    58. "And what is consciousness, what is the origin of 
  consciousness, what is the cessation of consciousness, what is the way 
  leading to the cessation of consciousness? There are these six classes 
  of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, 
  nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, 
  mind-consciousness. With the arising of formations there is the 
  arising of consciousness. With the cessation of formations there is 
  the cessation of consciousness. The way leading to the cessation of 
  consciousness is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view 
  ... right concentration.
    
    59. "When a noble disciple has thus understood consciousness, the 
  origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way 
  leading to the cessation of consciousness ... he here and now makes an 
  end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right 
  view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Formations
  ~~~~~~~~~~
  60. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
    
    61. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands formations, the 
  origin of formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of formations, in that way he is one of right view 
  ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    62. "And what are formations, what is the origin of formations, 
  what is the cessation of formations, what is the way leading to the 
  cessation of formations? There are these three kinds of formations: 
  the bodily formation, the verbal formation, the mental formation. With 
  the arising of ignorance there is the arising of formations. With the 
  cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of formations. The way 
  leading to the cessation of formations is just this Noble Eightfold 
  Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
    
    63. "When a noble disciple has thus understood formations, the 
  origin of formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of formations ... he here and now makes an end of 
  suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Ignorance
  ~~~~~~~~~
  64. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There 
  might be, friends.
  
    65. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the 
  origin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of ignorance, in that way he is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    66. "And what is ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what 
  is the cessation of ignorance, what is the way leading to the 
  cessation of ignorance? Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about 
  the origin of suffering, not knowing about the cessation of suffering, 
  not knowing about the way leading to the cessation of suffering -- 
  this is called ignorance. With the arising of the taints there is the 
  arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the 
  cessation of ignorance. The way leading to the cessation of ignorance 
  is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right 
  concentration.
    
    67. "When a noble disciple has thus understood ignorance, the 
  origin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of ignorance ... he here and now makes an end of 
  suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... 
  and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  Taints
  ~~~~~~
  68. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: 
  "But, friend, might there be another  way in which a noble disciple is 
  one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence 
  in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" --  "There might 
  be, friends.
  
    69. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the taints, the 
  origin of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of the taints, in that way he is one of right view, 
  whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and 
  has arrived at this true Dhamma.
    
    70. "And what are the taints, what is the origin of the taints, 
  what is the cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the 
  cessation of the taints? There are three taints: the taint of sensual 
  desire, the taint of being and the taint of ignorance. With the 
  arising of ignorance there is the arising of the taints. With the 
  cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the taints. The way 
  leading to the cessation of the taints is just this Noble Eightfold 
  Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right 
  action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right 
  concentration.
    
    71. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the taints, the 
  origin of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading 
  to the cessation of the taints, he entirely abandons the underlying 
  tendency to lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, he 
  extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,' and 
  by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now 
  makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of 
  right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the 
  Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
  
  
  
  That is what the Venerable Sariputta said. The bhikkhus were satisfied 
  and delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
  
  
                            * * * * * * * *
  
  
  
  
                                PART TWO:
                                          
             THE COMMENTARY TO THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
  
  
  
  1. Thus have I heard: the Sammaditthi Sutta.
  
    2. Herein, all such questions spoken by the Elder as " 'One of 
  right view, one of right view' is said, friends. In what way is a 
  noble disciple one of right view ...?" or "And what, friends, is the 
  unwholesome ...?" -- these are questions showing a desire to expound. 
  Herein, since those who know, those who do not know, those outside the 
  Dispensation, those within it, those who speak by hearsay, etc., and 
  those who speak by personal knowledge, say "one of right view," 
  therefore, taking it as an expression (common) to the many, he touched 
  upon it twice, saying "One of right view, one of right view" is said, 
  friends (//sammaditthi sammaditthi ti avuso vuccati//). The intention 
  here is this: "Others say 'one of right view,' and still others say 
  'one of right view.' Since that is said, in what way, friends, is a 
  noble disciple one of right view in respect of meaning and 
  characteristic?" Herein, one of right view is one possessing a lucid 
  and praiseworthy view (//sobhanaya pasatthaya ca ditthiya 
  samannagato//). But when this word "right view" is used to signify a 
  state (rather than a person endowed with that state), it then means a 
  lucid and praiseworthy view.[1] 
    
    This right view is twofold: mundane (//lokiya//) and supramundane 
  (//lokuttara//). Herein, the knowledge of kamma as one's own and 
  knowledge which is in conformity with the (Four Noble) Truths are 
  mundane right view; or, in brief, (mundane right view is) all 
  understanding that is accompanied by the taints.[2] Understanding 
  connected with the noble paths and fruits is supramundane right 
  view.[3] The person possessing right view is of three kinds: the 
  worldling (//puthujjana//), the disciple in higher training 
  (//sekha//), and the one beyond training (//asekha//). Herein, the 
  worldling is of two kinds: one outside the Dispensation and one within 
  the Dispensation. Herein, one outside the Dispensation who believes in 
  kamma is one of right view on account of the view of kamma as one's 
  own, but not on account of that which is in conformity with the 
  truths, because he holds to the view of self. One within the 
  Dispensation is of right view on account of both. The disciple in 
  higher training is one of right view on account of fixed right 
  view,[4] the one beyond training on account of (the right view) that 
  is beyond training.[5] 
    
    But here "one of right view" is intended as one possessing 
  supramundane wholesome right view, which is fixed in destiny and 
  emancipating. Hence he said: whose view is straight, who has perfect 
  confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma 
  (//ujugata'ssa ditthi dhamme aveccappasadena samannagato agato imam 
  saddhammam//). Because of its going straight without deviating to 
  either extreme, or because of its going straight by removing all 
  crookedness such as bodily crookedness, etc., supramundane right view 
  is "straight." One possessing that view also possesses perfect 
  confidence, unshakable confidence, in the ninefold supramundane 
  Dhamma.[6] And by becoming disentangled from all the thickets of 
  (wrong) views, by abandoning all the defilements, by departing from 
  the round of rebirths, by bringing the practice to its consummation, 
  he is said to have come by the noble path to this "true Dhamma" 
  proclaimed by the Enlightened One, that is, Nibbana, the plunge into 
  the Deathless.
  
  
  
  The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  3. Understands the unwholesome (//akusalan ca pajanati//): he 
  understands the unwholesome called the ten courses of unwholesome 
  kamma (action), penetrating this by way of function with the 
  understanding that has Nibbana as its object as "This is suffering." 
  (Understands) the root of the unwholesome (//akusalamulan ca 
  pajanati//): And he understands the unwholesome root which has become 
  the root condition of that (unwholesome), penetrating this, in the 
  same way, as "This is the origin of suffering." The same method 
  applies here also in regard to "the wholesome" and "the root of the 
  wholesome." And, as it is here, so in all the following sections, the 
  understanding of the subject should be understood by way of function.
  
    In that way (//ettavata pi//): by this much; by this understanding 
  of the unwholesome, etc. He is one of right view (//sammaditthi 
  hoti//): he possesses supramundane right view of the kind aforesaid. 
  Whose view is straight ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma: At 
  this point the summary version of the teaching has been expounded. And 
  this (part of) the teaching itself was brief; but for those bhikkhus 
  it should be understood that the penetration (of the meaning) through 
  right attention occurred in detail.
    
    But in the second section (Section 4) it should be understood that 
  the teaching too, as well as the penetration through attention, is 
  stated in detail.
    
    Herein, the bhikkhus [at the council at the Great Monastery held to 
  rehearse the Pitakas] said: "In the brief exposition the two lower 
  paths are discussed, in the detailed exposition the two higher paths," 
  taking into account the passage at the end of the sections setting 
  forth the detailed exposition that begins "he entirely abandons the 
  underlying tendency to lust." But the Elder (presiding over the 
  council) said: "In the brief exposition the four paths are expounded 
  as a group, and also in the detailed exposition."[7]
    
    This query into the brief and detailed expositions which has been 
  cleared up here should be understood in all the following sections in 
  the way stated here. From here on we shall only comment on terms that 
  are new or obscure.
  
  
  
  The Unwholesome Courses of Action
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  4. Herein, firstly, in the detailed exposition of the first section: 
  as regards the passage beginning killing living beings is unwholesome 
  (//panatipato kho avuso akusalam//), "unwholesome" should be 
  understood by way of the occurrence of unwholesomeness, or as what is 
  opposed to the wholesome, which is to be dealt with below (Section 6). 
  As to characteristic, it is blameworthy and has painful result, or it 
  is defiled. This, in the first place, is the comment upon the general 
  terms here. 
  
    But as regards the particular terms, the phrase killing living 
  beings means the slaughter of a living being, the destruction of a 
  living being. And here a living being (//pana//) is, according to 
  ordinary usage, a being (//satta//); in the ultimate sense it is the 
  life faculty. "Killing living beings" is the volition to kill on the 
  part of one who is aware, in respect of a living being, that it is a 
  living being, and which (volition), manifesting itself through one or 
  the other of the doors of body and speech, initiates activity 
  resulting in the cutting off of the life faculty.
    
    In relation to beings such as animals, etc., which lack moral 
  qualities (//guna//), it is less blameworthy in respect of small 
  living beings and more blameworthy in respect of beings with large 
  bodies. Why? Because of the magnitude of the effort involved. And when 
  the effort involved is equal, because of the magnitude of the object 
  (the being killed). In relation to beings such as humans, etc., who 
  possess moral qualities, it is less blameworthy in respect of beings 
  with few good qualities and more blameworthy in respect of beings with 
  great qualities. When the size of the body and moral qualities are 
  equal, however, it is less blameworthy when the defilements and 
  activity are mild, and more blameworthy when they are strong: so it 
  should be understood.
    
    There are five constituents for this (act of killing a living 
  being): a living being, awareness that it is a living being, the mind 
  to kill, activity, and the death (of the being) thereby.
    
    There are six means: one's own person, command, a missile, a fixed 
  contrivance, a magical spell, supernormal power. 
    
    To explore this matter in detail, however, would involve too much 
  diffuseness. Therefore we shall not explore it in detail, or any other 
  subject similar in kind. Those who wish to go into the matter may do 
  so by looking it up in the Samantapasadika, the Vinaya Commentary.[8]
    
    Taking what is not given (//adinnadana//): the carrying off of 
  others' goods, stealing, robbery, is what is meant. Herein, "what is 
  not given" is another's possession, which the other may use as he 
  likes without incurring penalty or blame. "Taking what is not given" 
  is the volition to steal on the part of one who is aware, in respect 
  of another's possession, that it is another's possession, and which 
  (volition) initiates activity resulting in the taking of that thing.
    
    That (taking of what is not given) is less blameworthy when the 
  other's property is of low value, and more blameworthy when it is of 
  high value. Why? Because of the high value of the object (stolen). 
  When the value of the objects is equal, the act is more blameworthy 
  when the object belongs to one of outstanding qualities, and less 
  blameworthy when the object belongs to one who, in comparison, is 
  inferior with respect to moral qualities.
    
    There are five constituents of this act: another's possession, 
  awareness that it is another's possession, the mind to steal, the 
  activity, and the carrying off (of the object) thereby. 
    
    There are six means: one's own person, etc. (as for killing). 
    
    And these (acts of stealing) may be classed, according to the way 
  in which they occur, by way of the following: taking by theft, by 
  force, by concealment, by stratagem, by fraud. This here is in brief; 
  the details, however, are given in the Samantapasadika.[9]
    
    Misconduct in sensual pleasures (//kamesu micchacara//): here, "in 
  sensual pleasures" (//kamesu//) means in regard to sexual intercourse. 
  "Misconduct" is entirely reprehensible vile conduct. As to 
  characteristic, sexual misconduct is the volition to transgress bounds 
  occurring through the body door by way of unrighteous intent. 
    
    Herein, out of bounds for men, firstly, are the twenty kinds of 
  women, that is, the ten beginning with those protected by the mother, 
  namely, "protected by the mother, protected by the father, protected 
  by the mother and father, protected by the brother, protected by the 
  sister, protected by relatives, protected by the clan, protected by 
  the law, under protection, entailing a penalty"; and the ten beginning 
  with those purchased with money, namely, "one purchased with money, 
  one who lives (with a man) by her own desire, one who lives (with a 
  man) on account of wealth, one who lives (with a man) on account of 
  cloth, one who is given (in marriage with the ceremony of) dipping the 
  hand in water, one who has been (taken to wife and) relieved of her 
  burden-carrying head-pad, one who is a slave and a wife, one who is a 
  servant and a wife, one who is carried off in a raid, one engaged at 
  so much a time."[10]
    
    Then, as concerns women, for the twelve kinds of women consisting 
  of the two, namely, under protection and entailing a penalty, and the 
  ten beginning with those purchased with money, other men are out of 
  bounds.
    
    This sexual misconduct is less blameworthy when (the person) out of 
  bounds is without good qualities such as virtue, etc., and more 
  blameworthy when (the person) possesses good qualities such as virtue, 
  etc. There are four constituents of this act: an object which is out 
  of bounds, the mind to engage in that, the effort to engage, and 
  consent to the union of sexual organs.[11] The means is single: one's 
  own person.
    
    False speech (//musavada//): "false" (//musa//) is the verbal 
  effort or bodily effort for destroying welfare (made) by one bent on 
  deceiving. "False speech" is the volition initiating the verbal effort 
  or bodily effort of deceiving another on the part of one intent on 
  deceiving. According to another method, "false" means an unreal, 
  untrue case, "speech" the communication of that as being real, true. 
  As to characteristic, "false speech" is the volition of one desiring 
  to communicate to another an untrue case as being true, which 
  (volition) initiates such an act of communication.
    
    This is less blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is slight, and 
  more blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is great. Further, when it 
  occurs on the part of householders who, not wishing to give away some 
  belonging of theirs, say "I do not have it," it is less blameworthy; 
  when one who is a witness speaks (falsely) for the purpose of 
  destroying another's welfare, it is more blameworthy. In the case of 
  those gone forth, when it occurs by their saying as a joke, after they 
  have obtained just a little oil or ghee, in the manner of the Puranas, 
  "Today the oil is flowing in the village just like a river," then it 
  is less blameworthy; but for those who speak (as a witness) saying 
  that they have seen what they have not seen it is more blameworthy. 
    
    There are four constituents of this act: an untrue case, the mind 
  to deceive, the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning 
  to another. The means is single: one's own person only. That is to be 
  regarded as the performing of the action of deceiving another by means 
  of the body or by means of something attached to the body or by means 
  of speech. If, through that action, the other understands that 
  meaning, one is bound by the kamma of false speech at the very moment 
  of the volition initiating the action.
    
    Malicious speech, etc.: The kind of speech that creates in the 
  heart of the person to whom it is spoken affection for oneself and 
  voidness (of affection) for another is malicious speech (//pisuna 
  vaca//). The kind of speech by which one makes both oneself and 
  another harsh, the kind of speech which is also itself harsh, being 
  pleasant neither to the ear nor to the heart -- that is harsh speech 
  (//pharusa vaca//). That by which one gossips idly, without meaning, 
  is gossip (//samphappalapa//). Also, the volition that is the root 
  cause of these gains the name "malicious speech," etc. And that only 
  is intended here.
    
    Therein, malicious speech is the volition of one with a defiled 
  mind, which (volition) initiates an effort by body or by speech either 
  to cause division among others or to endear oneself (to another). It 
  is less blameworthy when the person divided has few good qualities, 
  and more blameworthy when such a one has great qualities. Its 
  constituents are four: another person to be divided, the intention to 
  divide, (thinking) "Thus these will be separated and split" or the 
  desire to endear oneself, (thinking) "Thus I shall become loved and 
  intimate," the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning 
  to that person.
    
    Harsh speech is the entirely harsh volition initiating an effort by 
  body or by speech to wound another's vital feelings. This is an 
  example given for the purpose of making it clear: A village boy, it is 
  said, went to the forest without heeding his mother's words. Unable to 
  make him turn back, she scolded him angrily, saying: "May a wild 
  buffalo chase you!" Then a buffalo appeared before him right there in 
  the forest. The boy made an asseveration of truth, saying: "Let it not 
  be as my mother said but as she thought!" The buffalo stood as though 
  tied there. Thus, although the means (employed) was that of wounding 
  the vital feelings, because of the gentleness of her mind it was not 
  harsh speech. For sometimes parents even say to their children, "May 
  robbers chop you to pieces!" yet they do not even wish a lotus leaf to 
  fall upon them. And teachers and preceptors sometimes say to their 
  pupils, "What is the use of these shameless and heedless brats? Drive 
  them out!" yet they wish for their success in learning and attainment.
    
    Just as, through gentleness of mind, speech is not harsh, so 
  through gentleness of speech, speech does not become unharsh; for the 
  words "Let him sleep in peace" spoken by one wishing to kill are not 
  unharsh speech. But harsh speech is such on account of harshness of 
  mind only. It is less blameworthy when the person to whom it is spoken 
  has few good qualities, and more blameworthy when such a one has great 
  qualities. Its constituents are three: another to be abused, an angry 
  mind, the abusing.
    
    Gossip is the unwholesome volition initiating an effort by body or 
  by speech to communicate what is purposeless. It is less blameworthy 
  when indulged in mildly, and more blameworthy when indulged in 
  strongly. Its constituents are two: the being intent on purposeless 
  stories such as the Bharata war or the abduction of Sita, etc., and 
  the telling of such stories.[12]
    
    Covetousness (//abhijjha//): It covets, thus it is covetousness; 
  "having become directed towards others' goods, it occurs through 
  inclination towards them" is the meaning. It has the characteristic of 
  coveting others' goods thus: "Oh, that this were mine!" It is less 
  blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the case of taking what is not 
  given. Its constituents are two: another's goods, and the inclination 
  for them to be one's own. For even though greed has arisen based on 
  another's goods, it is not classed as a (completed) course of kamma so 
  long as one does not incline to them as one's own (with the thought), 
  "Oh, that this were mine!"
    
    Ill will (//byapada//): It injures welfare and happiness, thus it 
  is ill will (//hitasukham byapadayati ti byapado//). Its 
  characteristic is the mental defect (of wishing for) the destruction 
  of others. It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the case 
  of harsh speech. Its constituents are two: another being, and the wish 
  for that being's destruction. For even though anger has arisen based 
  on another being, there is no breach of a course of kamma so long as 
  one does not wish, "Oh, that this being might be cut off and 
  destroyed!" 
    
    Wrong view (//micchaditthi//): It sees wrongly due to the absence 
  of a correct grasp of things, thus it is wrong view. Its 
  characteristic is the mistaken view that "there is no (result from) 
  giving," etc. It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the 
  case of gossip. Moreover, it is less blameworthy when not fixed in 
  destiny, and more blameworthy when fixed.[13] Its constituents are 
  two: a mistaken manner of grasping the basis (for the view), and the 
  appearance of that (basis) in accordance with the manner in which it 
  has been grasped.
    
    Now the exposition of these ten courses of unwholesome kamma should 
  be understood in five ways: as to mental state (//dhammato//), as to 
  category (//kotthasato//), as to object (//arammanato//), as to 
  feeling (//vedanato//), and as to root (//mulato//).
    
    Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these are 
  volitional states only. The three beginning with covetousness are 
  associated with volition.[14]
    
    As to category: The eight consisting of the first seven and wrong 
  view are courses of kamma only, not roots. Covetousness and ill will 
  are courses of kamma and also roots; for covetousness, having arrived 
  at the (state of) a root, is the unwholesome root greed, and ill will 
  is the unwholesome root hate.
    
    As to object: Killing living beings, because it has the life 
  faculty as object, has a formation as object. Taking what is not given 
  has beings as object or formations as object. Misconduct in sensual 
  pleasures has formations as object by way of tangible object; but some 
  say it also has beings as object. False speech has beings or 
  formations as object; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has only 
  beings as object. Gossip has either beings or formations as object by 
  way of the seen, heard, sensed and cognized; likewise covetousness. 
  Ill will has only beings as object. Wrong view has formations as 
  object by way of the states belonging to the three planes (of being). 
    
    As to feeling: Killing living beings has painful feeling; for 
  although kings, seeing a robber, say laughingly, "Go and execute him," 
  their volition consummating the action is associated only with pain. 
  Taking what is not given has three feelings. Misconduct (in sensual 
  pleasures) has two feelings, pleasant and neutral, but in the mind 
  which consummates the action there is no neutral feeling. False speech 
  has three feelings; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has 
  painful feeling only. Gossip has three feelings. Covetousness has two 
  feelings, pleasant and neutral; likewise wrong view. Ill will has 
  painful feeling only.
    
    As to root: Killing living beings has two roots, by way of hate and 
  delusion; taking what is not given, by way of hate and delusion or by 
  way of greed and delusion; misconduct, by way of greed and delusion; 
  false speech, by way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and 
  delusion; likewise for malicious speech and gossip; harsh speech, by 
  way of hate and delusion. Covetousness has one root, by way of 
  delusion; likewise ill will. Wrong view has two roots, by way of greed 
  and delusion.
    
  
  
  The Unwholesome Roots
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  5. Greed is a root of the unwholesome, etc.: It is greedy, thus it is 
  greed (//lubbhati ti lobho//); it offends against (it hates), thus it 
  is hate (//dussati ti doso//); it deludes, thus it is delusion 
  (//muyhati ti moho//). Among these, greed is itself unwholesome in the 
  sense that it is blameworthy and has painful results; and it is a root 
  of these unwholesome (deeds) beginning with killing living beings, for 
  some in the sense that it is an associated originative cause, for some 
  in the sense that it is a decisive support condition. Thus it is an 
  unwholesome root. This too is said: "One who is lustful, friends, 
  overwhelmed and with mind obsessed by lust, kills a living being" 
  (A.3:71/i,216; text slightly different). The same method applies to 
  the state of being unwholesome roots in the cases of hate and 
  delusion.
  
  
  
  The Wholesome Courses of Action
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  6. Abstention from killing living beings is wholesome (//panatipata 
  veramani//), etc.: Here "killing living beings," etc. have the same 
  meaning as aforesaid. It crushes the hostile, thus it is abstention 
  (//veram manati ti veramani//); the meaning is that it abandons the 
  hostile. Or: with that as the instrument one abstains (//viramati//), 
  the syllable //ve// being substituted for the syllable vi. This here 
  is, in the first place, the commentary on the phrasing.
    
    But as to the meaning, abstention is refraining (//virati//) 
  associated with wholesome consciousness. What is stated thus: "For one 
  refraining from killing living beings, that which is on that occasion 
  the leaving off, the refraining" (Vibh. 285), that is the refraining 
  associated with wholesome consciousness. As to kind, it is threefold: 
  refraining in the presence of opportunity, refraining because of an 
  undertaking, and refraining because of eradication (of defilements).
    
    Herein, refraining in the presence of an opportunity 
  (//sampattavirati//) is to be understood as the refraining which 
  occurs in those who have not undertaken any training rule but who do 
  not transgress when an opportunity for doing so presents itself 
  because they reflect upon their birth, age, learning, etc., like the 
  lay follower Cakkana in the island of Sri Lanka.
    
    When he was a boy, it is said, his mother developed an illness, and 
  the doctor said, "Fresh hare's flesh is needed." Then Cakkana's 
  brother sent him, saying, "Go, dear, and hunt in the field." He went 
  there. On that occasion a hare had come to eat the young corn. On 
  seeing him it bolted swiftly, but it got entangled in a creeper and 
  squealed "kiri, kiri." Guided by the sound, Cakkana went and caught 
  it, thinking, "I will make medicine for my mother." Then he thought 
  again, "This is not proper for me, that I should deprive another of 
  life for the sake of my mother's life." So he released it, saying "Go 
  and enjoy the grass and the water with the other hares in the forest." 
  When his brother asked him, "Did you get a hare, dear?" he told him 
  what had happened. His brother scolded him. He went to his mother and 
  determined upon an asseveration of truth: "Since I was born I am not 
  aware that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life." 
  Straightaway his mother became well. 
    
    Refraining because of an undertaking (//samadanavirati//) is to be 
  understood as the refraining which occurs in those who do not 
  transgress in a particular case because they have undertaken training 
  rules, giving up even their own lives in the undertaking of the 
  training rules and in what is superior to that, like the lay follower 
  who dwelt at Uttaravaddhamana Mountain. 
    
    It is said that after undertaking the training rules from the Elder 
  Pingala Buddharakkhita who lived in the Ambariya Monastery, he was 
  plowing a field. Then his ox got lost. Searching for it, he climbed up 
  Uttaravaddhamana Mountain. There a large serpent seized him. He 
  thought, "Let me cut off his head with this sharp axe." Then he 
  thought again, "This is not proper for me, that I should break a 
  training rule that I have undertaken in the presence of my honored 
  teacher." Thinking up to the third time, "I will give up my life but 
  not the training rule," he threw the sharp hand axe that was slung on 
  his shoulder into the forest. Straightaway the creature released him 
  and went away.
    
    Refraining because of eradication (of defilements) 
  (//samucchedavirati//) is to be understood as the refraining 
  associated with the noble path. After the arising of this even the 
  thought, "I will kill a living being," does not occur to the noble 
  persons.
    
    This refraining is called "wholesome" (//kusala//) because of the 
  occurrence of wholesomeness (//kosalla//); or because of shedding the 
  vile (//kucchitassa salanato//). Also, evil conduct is commonly called 
  "weeds" (//kusa//) and it mows this down (//lunati//), thus it is 
  called "wholesome."
    
    As in the case of the unwholesome, so for these courses of 
  wholesome kamma the exposition should be understood in five ways: as 
  to mental state, as to category, as to object, as to feeling, and as 
  to root.
    
    Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these can be both 
  volitions and abstinences; the last three are associated with volition 
  only.
    
    As to category: The first seven are courses of kamma only, not 
  roots. The last three are courses of kamma and also roots. For 
  non-covetousness, having arrived at the (state of) a root, is the 
  wholesome root non-greed; non-ill will is the wholesome root non-hate; 
  and right view is the wholesome root non-delusion.
    
    As to object: The objects of these are the same as the objects of 
  killing living beings, etc. For abstention is spoken of in relation to 
  something which can be transgressed. But just as the noble path, which 
  has Nibbana as object, abandons the defilements, so too should these 
  courses of kamma, which have the life faculty, etc., as object, be 
  understood to abandon the kinds of evil conduct beginning with killing 
  living beings. 
    
    As to feeling: All have pleasant feeling or neutral feeling. For 
  there is no painful feeling which arrives at the wholesome.
    
    As to root: The first seven courses of kamma have three roots by 
  way of non-greed, non-hate, and non-delusion in one who abstains by 
  means of consciousness associated with knowledge. They have two roots 
  in one who abstains by means of consciousness dissociated from 
  knowledge.[15] Non-covetousness has two roots in one who abstains by 
  means of consciousness associated with knowledge, one root (in one who 
  abstains) by means of consciousness dissociated from knowledge. 
  Non-greed, however, is not by itself its own root. The same method 
  applies in the case of non-ill will. Right view always has two roots, 
  by way of non-greed and non-hate. [16]
    
    
  
  The Wholesome Roots
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  7. Non-greed is a root of the wholesome (//alobho kusalamulam//), 
  etc.: Non-greed is not greed; this is a term for the state that is 
  opposed to greed. The same method applies in the case of non-hate and 
  non-delusion. Among these, non-greed is itself wholesome; and it is a 
  root of these wholesome (courses of kamma) beginning with abstention 
  from killing living beings, for some in the sense that it is an 
  associated originative cause and for some in the sense that it is a 
  decisive support condition. Thus it is a wholesome root. The same 
  method applies to the state of being wholesome roots in the cases of 
  non-hate and non-delusion.
  
  
  
  Conclusion on the Unwholesome and the Wholesome
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  8. Now, summing up the meaning of all that has been set forth in brief 
  and in detail, he states the concluding section beginning with the 
  words when a noble disciple. Herein, has thus understood the wholesome 
  (//evam akusalam pajanati//) means: has thus understood the 
  unwholesome by way of the ten courses of unwholesome kamma as 
  described. The same method applies in the case of the root of the 
  unwholesome, etc. 
  
    Up to this point, by a single method, emancipation as far as 
  Arahantship has been expounded for one who has the Four Noble Truths 
  as his meditation subject. How? Here, the ten courses of unwholesome 
  kamma with the exception of covetousness, and the (ten) courses of 
  wholesome kamma, are the truth of suffering. These two states -- 
  covetousness and the greed which is a root of the unwholesome -- are, 
  literally speaking, the truth of the origin. Speaking figuratively, 
  however, all the courses of kamma are the truth of suffering, and all 
  the wholesome and unwholesome roots are the truth of the origin.[17] 
  The non-occurrence of both is the truth of cessation. The noble path 
  fully understanding suffering, abandoning its origin, and 
  understanding its  cessation is the truth of the path. Thus two truths 
  are stated in their own nature and two are to be understood by way of 
  the guideline of conversion.[18]
    
    He entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust (//so sabbaso 
  raganusayam pahaya//): Understanding thus the unwholesome, etc., he 
  abandons in all ways the underlying tendency to lust. He abolishes the 
  underlying tendency to aversion (//patighanusayam pativinodetva//): 
  and he removes in all ways too the underlying tendency to aversion, is 
  what is meant. Up to this point the path of non-return is stated.[19] 
  He extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I am" 
  (//asmi ti ditthimananusayam samuhanitva//): he extricates the 
  underlying tendency to the view and conceit which occurs in the mode 
  of grasping the five aggregates as a group (with the notion) "I am," 
  due to failure to distinguish any state among them.
    
    Therein, by the phrase the underlying tendency to the view and 
  conceit "I am" (//ditthimananusayam//) what is meant is the underlying 
  tendency to conceit which is similar to a view (//ditthisadisam 
  mananusayam//). For this underlying tendency to conceit is similar to 
  a view because it occurs (with the notion) "I am"; therefore it is 
  stated thus. And one who wishes to understand this conceit "I am" in 
  detail should look up the Khemaka Sutta in the Khandhiyavagga 
  (S.22:89/iii,126ff.). 
    
    By abandoning ignorance (//avijjam pahaya//): having abandoned 
  ignorance, the root of the round (of existence). And arousing true 
  knowledge (//vijjam uppadetva//): having aroused the true knowledge of 
  the path of Arahantship which completely extricates that ignorance. At 
  this point the path of Arahantship is stated.[20] He here and now 
  makes an end of suffering (//ditth'eva dhamme dukkhass'antakaro 
  hoti//): in this very existence he becomes one who cuts off the 
  suffering of the round.
    
    In that way too (//ettavatapi kho avuso//): he marks off (this 
  first part of) the teaching; by way of the attention and penetration 
  stated in this exposition of the courses of kamma, is what is meant. 
  The rest is as aforesaid. Thus he concludes the exposition by means of 
  the path of non-return and the path of Arahantship.
  
  
  
                          THE FOUR NUTRIMENTS
  
  
  General
  ~~~~~~~
  9. Saying, "Good, friend," ... (etc.) ..." and has arrived at this 
  true Dhamma": Thus, having heard the Venerable Sariputta's exposition 
  of the four truths under the heading of the wholesome and the 
  unwholesome, the bhikkhus delighted in his words with the statement, 
  "Good, friend," and rejoiced with the mind that aroused that 
  statement; what is meant is that they agreed by word and approved by 
  mind. Now, because the Elder was competent to give an exposition on 
  the four truths in diverse ways -- as (the Blessed One) said: 
  "Bhikkhus, Sariputta is able to propound, to teach, the Four Noble 
  Truths in detail" (M.141/iii, 248); or because he had said "in that 
  way too," being desirous of giving a further exposition, the bhikkhus, 
  being desirous of hearing the teaching of the four truths by another 
  method, asked him a further question. By asking "But, friend, might 
  there be another way? Would there be another case?" they asked another 
  question additional to that question asked and answered (already) by 
  the Venerable Sariputta himself. Or what is meant is that they asked a 
  question subsequent to the previous one. Then, answering them, the 
  Elder said, "There might be, friends," and so on.
    
    10. Herein, this is the elucidation of the terms that are not 
  clear. Nutriment (//ahara//) is a condition (//paccaya//). For a 
  condition nourishes its own fruit, therefore it is called 
  nutriment.[21]
    
    11. Of beings that already have come to be (//bhutanam va 
  sattanam//), etc.: Here come to be (//bhuta//) means come to birth, 
  reborn; seeking a new existence (//sambhavesinam//) means those who 
  seek, search for, existence, birth, production. Therein, among the 
  four kinds of generation,[22] beings born from eggs and from the womb 
  are said to be "seeking a new existence" as long as they have not 
  broken out of the eggshell or the placenta. When they have broken out 
  of the eggshell or the placenta and emerged outside, they are said to 
  have "come to be." The moisture-born and the spontaneously born are 
  said to be "seeking a new existence" at the first moment of 
  consciousness; from the second moment of consciousness onwards they 
  are said to have "come to be." 
    
    Or alternatively, "come to be" is born, reproduced; this is a term 
  for those who have destroyed the cankers (//Arahants//), who are 
  reckoned thus: "They have come to be only, but they will not come to 
  be again." "Seeking a new existence" means they seek a new existence; 
  this is a term for worldlings and disciples in higher training who 
  seek a new existence in the future too, because they have not 
  abandoned the fetter of being. Thus by these two terms he includes all 
  beings in all ways. 
    
    For the maintenance (//thitiya//); for the purpose of maintaining. 
  For the support (//anuggahaya//): for the purpose of supporting, for 
  the purpose of helping. This is merely a difference of words, but the 
  meaning of the two terms is one only. Or alternatively, "for the 
  maintenance" is for the non-interruption of this or that being by 
  means of the serial connection of arisen states. "For the support" is 
  for the arising of unarisen (states). And both these expressions 
  should be regarded as applicable in both cases thus: "For the 
  maintenance and support of those that have come to be, and for the 
  maintenance and support of those seeking a new existence."
  
  
  
  The Four Kinds of Nutriment
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  Physical food as nutriment (lit. "food made into a ball") 
  (//kabalinkaro aharo//) is nutriment that can be swallowed after 
  making it into a ball; this is a term for the nutritive essence which 
  has as its basis boiled rice, junket, etc.[23] Gross or subtle 
  (//olariko va sukhumo va//): it is gross because of the grossness of 
  the basis, and subtle because of the subtlety of the basis. But 
  because physical nutriment is included in subtle materiality, by way 
  of its individual essence it is subtle only.[24] And also that 
  grossness and subtlety should be understood relatively in respect of 
  the basis.
    
    The nutriment of peacocks is subtle compared with the nutriment of 
  crocodiles. Crocodiles, they say, swallow stones, and these dissolve 
  on reaching their stomachs. Peacocks eat such animals as snakes, 
  scorpions, etc. But the nutriment of hyenas is subtle compared with 
  the nutriment of peacocks. These, they say, eat horns and bones thrown 
  away three years before, and these become soft as yams as soon as they 
  are moistened with their saliva. Also, the nutriment of elephants is 
  subtle compared with the nutriment of hyenas. For these eat the 
  branches of various trees, etc. The nutriment of the gayal buffalo, 
  the antelope, the deer, etc., is subtler than the nutriment of 
  elephants. These, they say, eat the sapless leaves of various kinds of 
  trees, etc. The nutriment of cows is subtler than their nutriment; 
  they eat fresh and dried grass. The nutriment of hares is subtler than 
  their nutriment; that of birds is subtler than that of hares; that of 
  barbarians is subtler than that of birds; that of village headmen is 
  subtler than that of barbarians; that of kings and kings' ministers is 
  subtler than village headmens'; that of a Wheel-turning Monarch is 
  subtler than their nutriment. The earth deities' nutriment is subtler 
  than that of a Wheel-turning Monarch. The nutriment of the deities of 
  the Four Great Kings is subtler than that of the earth deities. Thus 
  nutriment should be elaborated up to that of the deities who wield 
  power over others' creations.[25] But saying, "Their nutriment is 
  subtle," the end is reached.
    
    And here, in a basis that is gross, the nutritive essence is 
  limited and weak; in one that is subtle, it is strong. Thus one who 
  has drunk even a full bowl of gruel is soon hungry again and desirous 
  of eating anything; but after drinking even a small amount of ghee, he 
  will not want to eat for the whole day. Therein, it is the basis that 
  dispels fatigue, but it is unable to preserve; but the nutritive 
  essence preserves, though it cannot dispel fatigue. But when the two 
  are combined they both dispel fatigue and preserve.
    
    Contact as the second (//phasso dutiyo//): The sixfold contact 
  beginning with eye-contact should be understood as the second of these 
  four kinds of nutriment. And this is the method of the teaching 
  itself; therefore it should not be inquired into here, saying "For 
  this reason it is the second, or the third." Mental volition 
  (//manosancetana//): volition (//cetana//) itself is stated. 
  Consciousness (//vinnanam//): any kind of consciousness whatever.
    
    It may be asked here: "If the meaning of condition is the meaning 
  of nutriment, then, when other conditions also exist for beings, why 
  are only these four stated?" It should be said in reply: "It is 
  because they are the special conditions for personal continuity." For 
  physical nutriment is the special condition for the material body of 
  beings that eat physical nutriment; as  regards the group of mental 
  constituents, contact is (the special condition) for feeling, mental 
  volition for consciousness, and consciousness for 
  mentality-materiality. As it is said: "Just as, bhikkhus, this body 
  has nutriment for its maintenance, is maintained in dependence on 
  nutriment, and without nutriment is not maintained" (S.46:2/v,64); and 
  likewise: "With contact as condition, feeling; ... with formations as 
  condition, consciousness; ... with consciousness as condition, 
  mentality-materiality" (S.12:1/ii,1, etc.).
    
    What is this nutriment, and what does it nourish? Physical 
  nutriment nourishes the materiality with nutritive essence as 
  eighth;[26] contact as nutriment nourishes the three feelings; mental 
  volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of being; 
  consciousness as nutriment nourishes the mentality-materiality of 
  rebirth-linking.
    
    How? As soon as it is placed in the mouth, physical food as 
  nutriment brings into being the eight kinds of materiality 
  (aforesaid). Then each lump of cooked rice ground by the teeth, on 
  being swallowed, brings into being unit after unit of the eight kinds 
  of materiality. Thus it nourishes the materiality with nutritive 
  essence as eighth.
    
    But with contact as nutriment, when contact productive of pleasant 
  feeling arises it nourishes pleasant feeling; contact productive of 
  painful feeling nourishes painful feeling; contact productive of 
  neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling nourishes 
  neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Thus in all ways contact as 
  nutriment nourishes the three kinds of feeling.
    
    In the case of mental volition as nutriment, kamma leading to 
  sense-sphere being nourishes sense-sphere being; kamma leading to 
  fine-material and immaterial being nourishes its respective kind of 
  being. Thus in all ways mental volition as nutriment nourishes the 
  three kinds of being.
    
    But with consciousness as nutriment, it is said that it nourishes, 
  by way of conascence condition, etc., the three (immaterial) 
  aggregates associated with itself at the moment of rebirth-linking and 
  the thirty kinds of materiality that arise by way of triple 
  continuity. Thus consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality of 
  rebirth-linking.[27]
    
    And here, by the words "mental volition as nutriment nourishes the 
  three kinds of being," only the wholesome and unwholesome volition 
  accompanied by taints is meant; by the  words "consciousness nourishes 
  the mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking," only rebirth-linking 
  consciousness is meant. However, these are to be understood 
  indiscriminately as nutriments as well because they nourish the states 
  that are associated with them and originated by them.
  
  
  
  The Four Functions
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  As regards these four kinds of nutriment, physical food as nutriment 
  accomplishes the function of nutriment by sustaining, contact by 
  contacting (touching), mental volition by accumulating, consciousness 
  by cognizing.
    
    How? Physical food as nutriment, by sustaining, is for the 
  maintenance of beings by maintaining the body. For this body, though 
  generated by kamma, is sustained by physical food and stands for ten 
  years or a hundred years up to the end of the life-span. Like what? 
  Like a child which, though given birth by the mother, is nurtured by 
  the milk, etc., given to him to drink by the wet-nurse and thus lives 
  long. Also, as a house is supported by a prop. This too has been said 
  (untraced): "Great king, just as, when a house is collapsing, they 
  prop it up with other timber, and that house, being propped up by 
  other timber, does not collapse, so too this body is supported by 
  nutriment, persists in dependence upon nutriment."
    
    Thus physical food as nutriment accomplishes the function of 
  nutriment by sustaining. Accomplishing it thus, physical food as 
  nutriment becomes a condition for two material continuities, namely, 
  for that originated by nutriment and that kammically acquired.[28] It 
  is a condition for the kamma-born materiality by becoming its 
  preserver. It is a condition for that originated by nutriment by 
  becoming its producer.
    
    Then contact, by contacting the object which is the basis for 
  pleasure, etc., is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the 
  occurrence of pleasant feeling, etc. Mental volition, accumulating by 
  way of wholesome and unwholesome kamma, is "for the maintenance of 
  beings" because it provides the root of existence. Consciousness, by 
  cognizing, is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the 
  occurrence of mentality-materiality.
  
  
  
  The Four Dangers
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  Now, while these are accomplishing their function of nutriment by 
  sustaining, etc., four dangers are to be seen: the danger of desire in 
  the case of physical food as nutriment; the danger of approach in the 
  case of contact; (the danger) of accumulating in the case of mental 
  volition; and (the danger) of launching [into a new existence here or 
  there by way of taking rebirth-linking]  in the case of consciousness.
    
    What are the reasons (for this)? Because, having aroused desire for 
  physical food, beings face cold, etc., to undertake such work as 
  checking, accounting, etc., and incur not a little suffering. And some 
  who have gone forth in this dispensation seek nutriment through such 
  improper means as the practice of medicine, etc., and they are to be 
  censured here and now, and hereafter they become "recluse ghosts" in 
  the manner described thus in the Lakkhana Samyutta: "And his outer 
  robe was burning, blazing," etc.[29] For this reason, desire itself is 
  to be understood as the danger in physical food as nutriment. 
    
    Those who approach contact, who find gratification in contact, 
  commit crimes in respect of others' guarded and protected belongings, 
  such as their wives, etc. When the owners of the goods catch them with 
  their belongings, they cut them into pieces or throw them onto a 
  rubbish heap, or hand them over to the king; and then the king has 
  various tortures inflicted upon them. And with the breakup of the 
  body, after death, a bad destination is to be expected for them. Thus 
  this entire danger -- that pertaining to the here and now and that 
  pertaining to the afterlife -- has come about rooted in contact. For 
  this reason, approach is to be understood as the danger in the case of 
  the nutriment contact.
    
    The entire danger in the three realms of existence has come about 
  by the accumulation of wholesome and unwholesome kamma and is rooted 
  in that (accumulation). For this reason, accumulation is to be 
  understood as the danger in the nutriment mental volition.
    
    And in whatever place rebirth-linking consciousness launches (the 
  new existence), in that same place it is reborn by seizing the 
  rebirth-linking mentality-materiality. When it is produced, all 
  dangers are produced, for they are all rooted in it. For this reason, 
  launching is to be understood as the danger in the nutriment 
  consciousness.
  
  
  
  The Four Similes
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  In regard to these nutriments with their dangers, for the sake of 
  eliminating desire for the nutriment physical food, the Fully 
  Enlightened One taught the simile of son's flesh in the passage 
  beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, a couple, a man and his wife, ..." 
  For the sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment contact, he 
  taught the simile of the flayed cow in the passage beginning thus: 
  "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a flayed cow ..." For the sake of 
  eliminating desire for the nutriment mental volition, he taught the 
  simile of the charcoal pit in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, 
  bhikkhus, there was a charcoal pit ..." And for the sake of 
  eliminating desire for the nutriment consciousness, he taught the 
  simile of the man struck with three hundred spears in the passage 
  beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a thief, a crook 
  ..."[30]
    
    Therein, taking the essential meaning, there follows a brief 
  interpretation of the meaning. A couple, it is said, a man and his 
  wife, took their son and set out on a desert trail a hundred yojanas 
  long,[31] with only limited provisions. When they had gone fifty 
  yojanas their provisions ran out. Exhausted by hunger and thirst, they 
  sat down in some scanty shade. Then the man said to his wife: "My 
  dear, for fifty yojanas on all sides there is neither a village nor a 
  town. Therefore, though a man can do many kinds of work, such as 
  plowing, guarding cattle, etc., it is not possible for me to do that. 
  Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other half 
  into provisions for the journey, cross out of the desert together with 
  our son."
    
    The wife said: "Dear husband, though a woman can do many kinds of 
  work, such as spinning thread, etc., it is not possible for me to do 
  that. Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other 
  half into provisions for the journey, cross out of the desert together 
  with our son."
    
    Then the man said: "My dear, the death of the mother would mean the 
  death of two, for a young boy cannot live without his mother. But if 
  we both live, then we can beget another child again. Come now, let us 
  kill our child, take his flesh, and cross out of this desert."
    
    Then the mother said to the son: "Dear, go to your father." He 
  went, but the father said: "For the sake of supporting this child I 
  incurred much suffering through such work as plowing, guarding cattle, 
  etc. I cannot kill the boy. You kill your son."  Then he said: "Dear, 
  go to your mother." But the mother said: "Longing for a son I incurred 
  much suffering by observing the cow-observance, the dog-observance, 
  praying to the gods, etc., not to speak of bearing him in my womb.[32] 
  It is not possible for me to kill him." Then she said: "Dear, go to 
  your father." 
    
    The boy died from going back and forth between the father and the 
  mother. Seeing him dead, they wept, and having taken the flesh as 
  described above, they departed. Because that flesh of their son was 
  repulsive to them for nine reasons, it was not eaten for enjoyment nor 
  for intoxication nor for making (the body) strong and beautiful, but 
  only for the purpose of crossing out of the desert.
    
    For what nine reasons was it repulsive? Because it was the flesh of 
  their own offspring, the flesh of a relative, the flesh of a son, the 
  flesh of a dear son, the flesh of a youngster, raw flesh, not beef, 
  unsalted, unspiced. Therefore the bhikkhu who sees the nutriment 
  physical food thus, as similar to son's flesh, eliminates the desire 
  for it.[33]
    
    This, in the first place, is the interpretation of the meaning of 
  the simile of son's flesh.
    
    Then, as regards the simile of the flayed cow: If a cow were 
  stripped of its skin from the neck to the hooves and then set free, 
  whatever it would rest upon would become a basis of pain for it, since 
  it would be bitten by the small creatures living there.[34] So too, 
  whatever physical basis or object contact stands upon as its support 
  becomes a basis for the felt pain originating from that basis or 
  object.[35] Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment contact thus, 
  as similar to a flayed cow, eliminates the desire for it. This is the 
  interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the flayed cow.
    
    Then, as regards the simile of the charcoal pit:[36] The three 
  realms of being are like a charcoal pit in the sense of a great 
  burning heat (lit., a great fever). Like the two men who grab hold (of 
  a weaker man) by both his arms and drag him towards it, is mental 
  volition in the sense that it drags one towards the realms of being. 
  Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment mental volition thus, as 
  similar to a charcoal pit, eliminates the desire for it. This is the 
  interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the charcoal pit.
    
    Then, as regards the simile of the man struck with three hundred 
  spears:[37] The hundred spears that strike the man in  the morning 
  make a hundred wound openings in his body, and without remaining 
  inside they pierce through and fall on the other side; and so with the 
  other two hundred spears as well. Thus his whole body is cut again and 
  again by the spears which come without piercing him in a place where 
  another has already struck. There is no measuring the pain arisen in 
  him from even one of the wound openings, not to speak of three hundred 
  wound openings.
    
    Therein, the time of the generation of the rebirth-linking 
  consciousness is like the time of being struck by a spear. The 
  production of the aggregates is like the production of the wound 
  openings. The arising of the various kinds of suffering rooted in the 
  round (of existence) once the aggregates have been born is like the 
  arising of suffering on account of the wound openings. 
    
    Another method of interpretation (is as follows): The 
  rebirth-linking consciousness is like the thief. His 
  mentality-materiality conditioned by consciousness is like the wound 
  openings created by the striking of the spears. The arising of the 
  various kinds of suffering by way of the thirty-two types of torture 
  and the eighty-nine types of diseases in regard to consciousness 
  conditioned by mentality-materiality -- this should be regarded as 
  like the arising of severe pain for that man conditioned by the wound 
  openings.
    
    Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment consciousness thus, as 
  similar to one struck by three hundred spears, eliminates the desire 
  for it. This is the interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the 
  man struck by three hundred spears.
  
  
  
  Full Understanding
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  Thus by eliminating desire in regard to these nutriments, he also 
  fully understands these four nutriments. When these have been fully 
  understood, the entire basis (for them) has also been fully 
  understood. For this has been said by the Blessed One 
  (S.12:63/ii,99-100):
  
      Bhikkhus, when the nutriment physical food has been fully 
      understood, lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure has 
      been fully understood. When lust for the five cords of sensual 
      pleasure has been fully understood, there exists no more any 
      fetter bound by which the noble disciple might come back to 
      this world. 
      
      Bhikkhus, when the nutriment contact has been fully understood, 
      the three feelings have been fully understood. When the three 
      feelings have been fully understood, there is nothing further 
      for the noble disciple to do, I say.
      
      Bhikkhus, when the nutriment mental volition has been fully 
      understood, the three kinds of craving have been fully 
      understood. When the three kinds of craving have been fully 
      understood, there is nothing further for the noble disciple to 
      do, I say.
      
      Bhikkhus, when the nutriment consciousness has been fully 
      understood, mentality-materiality has been fully understood. 
      When mentality-materiality has been fully understood, there is 
      nothing further for the noble disciple to do, I say.
  
  
  
  The Arising and Cessation of Nutriment
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
    With the arising of craving there is the arising of nutriment 
  (//tanhasamudaya aharasamudayo//): This is the meaning: "With the 
  arising of craving in the previous (existence) the arising of the 
  nutriments occurs at rebirth-linking (in this existence)." How? 
  Because at the moment of rebirth-linking there is the nutritive 
  essence produced among the thirty types of materiality that have 
  arisen by way of triple continuity.[38] This is the kammically 
  acquired physical food as nutriment produced by craving as its 
  condition. But the contact and volition associated with the 
  rebirth-linking consciousness, and that mind or consciousness itself 
  -- these are the kammically acquired nutriments of contact, mental 
  volition and consciousness produced by craving as their condition. 
  Thus, in the first place, the arising of the nutriments at 
  rebirth-linking should be understood as occurring with the arising of 
  craving in the previous existence.
    
    But because the nutriments that are kammically acquired and those 
  that are not kammically acquired have been discussed here combined, 
  (the principle of) the arising of nutriment with the arising of 
  craving should be understood to apply also to those that are not 
  kammically acquired. For there is nutritive essence in the kinds of 
  materiality that are aroused by the eight types of consciousness 
  accompanied by greed;[39] this is the nutriment physical food that is 
  not kammically acquired yet is produced by conascent craving as its 
  condition. But the contact and volition associated with the 
  consciousness accompanied by greed, and that mind or consciousness 
  itself -- these are the nutriments of contact, mental volition and 
  consciousness that are not kammically acquired yet are produced by 
  craving as their condition.
    
    With the cessation of craving there is cessation of nutriment 
  (//tanhanirodha aharanirodho//): By this there is set forth the 
  cessation of nutriment by the cessation of the craving that had become 
  the condition for both nutriment that is kammically acquired and that 
  which is not kammically acquired. The rest (should be understood) by 
  the method stated, but there is this difference. Here the four truths 
  are stated directly, and as here, so in all the following sections. 
  Therefore one who is unconfused in mind can deduce the truths 
  throughout in what follows.[40]
    
    12. And in all the following sections the delimiting phrase In that 
  way too, friends (//ettavata pi kho avuso//) should be construed 
  according to the principle that has been expounded. Here, in the first 
  place, this is the interpretation of it (in the present context). "In 
  that way too": what is meant is: "the attention and penetration stated 
  by way of the teaching concerning nutriment." The same method 
  throughout.
  
  
  
  The Four Noble Truths
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  14. Now, delighting and rejoicing in the Elder's words, after saying 
  as before "Good, friend," the bhikkhus asked a further question, and 
  the Elder answered them by another exposition. This method is found in 
  all the following sections. Therefore, from here onwards, we shall 
  explain the meaning only of the particular exposition he states in 
  reply, without touching upon such words (as are already explained).
  
    15. In the brief exposition of this teaching, in the phrase (he) 
  understands suffering (//dukkham pajanati//), "suffering" is the truth 
  of suffering. But regarding the detailed exposition, whatever needs to 
  be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga in the 
  Description of the Truths (XVI,13-104).
  
  
  
  Aging and Death
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  21. From here onwards the teaching is given by way of dependent 
  arising (//paticca samuppada//).
  
    22. Therein, in the section on aging and death, firstly as to the 
  term their (//tesam tesam//) -- this should be understood as a 
  collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings. For if 
  one were to state (the aging of individuals such as) the aging of 
  Devadatta, the aging of Somadatta, etc., one would never come to an 
  end of beings. But there is no being not included by this term 
  "their."[41] Therefore it was said above: "This should be understood 
  as a collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings." 
    
    In the various (//tamhi tamhi//): This is a collective designation 
  for the many (different) orders by way of destiny and birth. Orders of 
  beings (//sattanikaye//): an indication of the nature of what is 
  designated by the collective designation. 
    
    Aging, old age (//jara jiranata//), etc.: As regards these, "aging" 
  is the description of the nature; "old age" is the description of the 
  aspect; "brokenness," etc., are descriptions of the function with 
  respect to the passage of time; and the last two terms are 
  descriptions of the normal (process). For this is indicated as to 
  nature by this term aging (//jara//); hence this is a description of 
  its nature. It is indicated as to aspect by this term old age 
  (//jiranata//); hence this is a description of its aspect. Brokenness 
  (//khandicca//): by this it is indicated as to the function of causing 
  the broken state of teeth and nails on account of the passage of time. 
  Grayness (//palicca//): by this it is indicated as to the function of 
  causing the head hairs and body hairs to turn gray. Wrinkling 
  (//valittacata//): by this it is indicated as to the wrinkled state of 
  the skin after the withering of the flesh. Hence the three terms 
  beginning with brokenness are descriptions of function with respect to 
  the passage of time. By these evident aging is shown, which becomes 
  evident by the showing of these alterations. For just as the course 
  taken by water or wind or fire is evident from the damaged and broken 
  state, or the burnt state, of the grass and trees, etc., and yet the 
  course that has been taken is not the water, etc.,  itself, so too the 
  course taken by aging is evident through brokenness of teeth, etc., 
  and it is apprehended by opening the eyes, but the brokenness, etc., 
  themselves are not aging, nor is aging cognizable by the eye.
    
    Decline of life, weakness of faculties (//ayuno samhani indriyanam 
  paripako//): By these terms it is indicated by means of the normal 
  (process) known as the exhaustion of the life-span and the weakening 
  of the eye faculty, etc., that has become manifest with the passage of 
  time. Hence these last two are to be understood as descriptions of its 
  normal (process). 
    
    Therein, because the life-span of one who has reached aging is 
  dwindling, aging is called "decline of life" as a metaphor (for the 
  cause stated in terms) of its effect. And because the eye faculty, 
  etc. -- which at the time of youth were quite clear and could easily 
  grasp even subtle objects -- become deficient, obscure, unable to 
  grasp even gross objects when one has reached old age, therefore it is 
  called "weakness of faculties" also as a metaphor (for the cause 
  stated in terms) of its effect. 
    
    This aging, thus described, is all of two kinds, evident and 
  concealed. Therein, the aging of material phenomena, shown by 
  brokenness, etc., is called evident aging (//pakatajara//). But in the 
  case of immaterial phenomena, because their alteration in such a way 
  is not visible, their aging is called concealed aging 
  (//paticchannajara//). Therein, the brokenness that is seen is simply 
  color (//vanna//) because of the ease of comprehending such things as 
  the teeth, etc. Having seen this with the eye and reflected on it with 
  the mind door, one knows aging thus: "These teeth have been afflicted 
  by aging," just as one knows the existence of water below when one has 
  noticed the heads of cows, etc., bound to the place where the water is 
  located.
    
    Again, aging is twofold thus: as continuous and as discrete. 
  Therein, continuous aging (//avicijara//) is the aging of such things 
  as gems, gold, silver, coral, the sun and moon, etc.; it is so called 
  because of the difficulty of perceiving in such things distinct 
  changes in color, etc., at regular intervals, as we can in the case of 
  living beings passing through the decade of childhood, etc., and in 
  the case of vegetation (lit. non-breathing things) such as flowers, 
  fruits, buds, etc. The meaning is: aging that progresses without 
  interval. Discrete aging (//savicijara//) is the aging of the things 
  other than those, i.e. of the aforesaid things (living beings and 
  vegetation); it is so called because it is easy to perceive in them 
  distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals. So it should be 
  understood.
    
    Following this (in the definition of death) the term their (//tesam 
  tesam//) should be understood by the method stated above (in the 
  definition of aging). Then, in the expression passing, passing away, 
  etc., passing (//cuti//) is said by way of what has the nature to pass 
  away; this is a collective designation (applying) to one-, four-, and 
  five-aggregate (existence). Passing away (//cavanata//) is the 
  indication of the characteristic by a word expressing the abstract 
  state. Dissolution (//bheda//) is an indication of the occurrence of 
  the breaking up of the aggregates (at the time) of passing. 
  Disappearance (//antaradhana//) is an indication of the absence of any 
  manner of persistence of the aggregates (at the time) of passing, as 
  they are broken like a broken pot.
    
    Dying (//maccu marana//): death which is called dying. By this he 
  rejects the idea of death as complete annihilation. Completion of time 
  (//kalakiriya//): time is the destroyer, and this (completion of time) 
  is its activity. By this he explains death in conventional 
  terminology. 
    
    Now, to explain death in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense, he 
  next says the dissolution of the aggregates (//khandhanam bhedo//), 
  etc.[42] For in the ultimate sense it is only the aggregates that 
  break up; it is not any so called being that dies. But when the 
  aggregates are breaking up convention says "a being is dying," and 
  when they have broken up convention says "(he is) dead."
    
    Here the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four- [and 
  five-] constituent being; the laying down of the body (//kalevarassa 
  nikkhepo//) by way of one-constituent being.[43] Or alternatively, the 
  dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four-constituent 
  being; the laying down of the body should be understood by way of the 
  other two (i.e. one- and five-constituent being). Why? Because of the 
  existence of the body, that is, the material body, in those two realms 
  of being. Or else, because in the realm of the Four Great Kings, etc., 
  the aggregates simply break up and they do not lay anything down, the 
  dissolution of the aggregates is said with reference to them.[44] The 
  laying down of the body occurs among human beings, etc. And here, 
  because it is the cause for the laying down of the body, death is 
  called the laying down of the body. Thus the meaning should be 
  understood.
    
    So this aging and this death are what is called aging and death 
  (//iti ayan ca jara idan ca maranam idam vuccat'avuso jaramaranam//): 
  this is spoken of as "aging and death" by combining the two into one.
  
  
  
  Birth
  ~~~~~
  26. In the section on birth, in regard to the phrase birth, ... their 
  coming to birth, etc., birth (//jati//) is in the sense of being born; 
  this is stated with reference to those (conceived) with incomplete 
  sense bases. Coming to birth (//sanjati//) is in the sense of the act 
  of coming to birth; this is stated with reference to those (conceived) 
  with already complete sense bases. Precipitation (or descent, 
  //okkanti//) is in the sense of being precipitated (descending). This 
  is stated with reference to those born from the egg and from the womb, 
  for they take rebirth-linking as though descending and entering the 
  egg shell or the placenta. Generation (//abhinibbatti//) is in the 
  sense of being generated. This is stated with reference to those born 
  from moisture or those of spontaneous birth, for these are generated 
  as soon as they become manifest.
  
    Now comes the exposition in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense. 
  Manifestation (//patubhava//) is the arising. Of the aggregates 
  (//khandhanam//) is to be understood as (the arising) of one aggregate 
  in the one-constituent realm of being, of four aggregates in 
  four-constituent realms, and of five aggregates in five-constituent 
  realms. Obtaining (//patilabha//) is the manifestation in continuity. 
  The bases (//ayatananam//) should be understood as comprising the 
  sense bases arising (at conception) in this or that realm. For when 
  the sense bases become manifest, then they are said to be obtained.
    
    This is called birth (//ayam vuccat'avuso jati//): by this phrase 
  he comes to the conclusion on birth taught in both conventional terms 
  and in the ultimate sense.
    
    With the arising of being (//bhavasamudaya//): but here one should 
  understand kammically active being as the condition for birth. The 
  rest by the method stated. 
  
  
  
  Being
  ~~~~~
  30. In the section on being, sense-sphere being (//kamabhava//) is 
  kammically active being and resultant being. Therein, kammically 
  active being (//kammabhava//) is kamma itself that leads to 
  sense-sphere being. For that is called "being" as a designation of the 
  cause in terms of its effect, because it is the cause for resultant 
  being, as when it is said: "The arising of Buddhas is bliss" and "The 
  accumulation of evil is painful" (Dhp. 194, 117). Resultant being 
  (//upapattibhava//) is the group of kammically acquired aggregates 
  produced by that kamma. For that is called "being" because it exists 
  there. Thus this kamma and this result are both spoken of conjointly 
  as "sense-sphere being." The same method applies to fine-material 
  being and immaterial being (//ruparupabhava//).
    
    With the arising of clinging  (//upadanasamudaya//): But here 
  clinging is a condition for wholesome kammically active being only by 
  way of decisive support; it is a condition for unwholesome kammically 
  active being by way of both decisive support and conascence.[45] For 
  all resultant being it is a condition only by way of decisive support. 
  The rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  Clinging
  ~~~~~~~~
  34. In the section on clinging, in regard to the phrase "clinging to 
  sense pleasures," etc., clinging to sense pleasures (//kamupadana//) 
  is analyzed thus: by this one clings to the object of sensual 
  pleasure, or this itself clings to it. Or alternatively: that is a 
  sensual pleasure and it is clinging, thus it is clinging to sensual 
  pleasure. It is firm grasping (//dalhagahana//) that is called 
  clinging. For here the prefix //upa// has the sense of firmness. This 
  is a designation for the lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure. 
  This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be 
  understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to 
  sensual pleasures? The sensual desire in regard to sensual pleasures," 
  etc. (Dhs. Section 1214).
    
    So too, that is a view and clinging, thus it is clinging to views 
  (//ditthupadana//). Or alternatively: it clings to a view, or by this 
  they cling to a view. For the subsequent view clings to the previous 
  view and thereby they cling to the view. As it is said: "Self and the 
  world are eternal; only this is true, anything else is false," etc. 
  (M.102/ii, 233). This is a designation for the whole field of (wrong) 
  views except clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a 
  doctrine of self.[46] This is the brief account here. The detailed 
  account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what 
  is clinging to views? There is nothing given," etc. (Dhs. Section 
  1215).
    
    So too, by this they cling to rituals and observances, or this 
  itself clings to them, or that is a ritual and observance and 
  clinging, thus it is clinging to rituals and observances 
  (//silabbatupadana//). For when one adheres to the idea that the cow 
  ritual or cow observance brings purification, that itself is a 
  clinging.[47] This is the brief account here. The detailed account 
  should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is 
  clinging to rituals and observances? (The idea) of recluses and 
  brahmins outside here (i.e. outside the Buddha's dispensation) that 
  purity (is achieved) by rules," etc. (Dhs. Section 1216).
    
    Now they assert in terms of this, thus it is a doctrine. By this 
  they cling, thus it is clinging. What do they assert? Or what do they 
  cling to? Self. The clinging to a doctrine about a self is the 
  clinging to a doctrine of self (//attavadupadana//). Or alternatively: 
  by this a mere doctrine of self is clung to as self, thus it is 
  clinging to a doctrine of self. This is a designation for personality 
  view with its twenty cases. This is the brief account here. The 
  detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: 
  "Therein, what is clinging to a doctrine of self? Here, the 
  uninstructed worldling who has no regard for noble ones," etc. (Dhs. 
  Section 1217).
    
    With the arising of craving (//tanhasamudaya//): here, craving is a 
  condition for clinging to sensual pleasures either by way of decisive 
  support or by way of proximity, contiguity, absence, disappearance and 
  repetition.[48] But for the rest (it is a condition) by way of 
  conascence, etc., too. The rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  Craving
  ~~~~~~~
  38. In the section on craving, craving for forms ... craving for 
  mind-objects (//rupatanha ... dhammatanha//): these are names for the 
  kinds of craving which occur in the course of a javana cognitive 
  process (//javanavithi//) in the eye door, etc. Like a name derived 
  from the father, such as Setthiputta ("merchant's son") or 
  Brahmanaputta ("brahmin's son"), their names are derived from the 
  object, which is similar to the father [as being the cause (//hetu//) 
  of it only, not as is the case with "eye-contact," which is like a 
  name derived from the mother in that (the eye like the mother in 
  relation to her son) is a cause by its nature as a physical support 
  (//nissayabhava//)]. 
    
    And here, craving for forms is craving that has forms as its 
  object, craving in regard to forms. When this occurs by finding 
  gratification in visible forms through its nature as sensual lust, it 
  is craving for sensual pleasure (//kamatanha//). When it occurs by 
  finding gratification in visible forms, thinking "Form is permanent, 
  lasting, eternal," through its nature as lust accompanied by the 
  eternalist view, then it is craving for being (//bhavatanha//). When 
  it occurs by finding gratification in visible form, thinking "Form is 
  annihilated, destroyed, and does not exist after death," through its 
  nature as lust accompanied by the annihilationist view, then it is 
  craving for non-being (//vibhavatanha//). Thus it is threefold. And as 
  craving for form, so too craving for sound, etc., (are each threefold 
  too). Thus there are eighteen modes of craving. These eighteen in 
  respect of internal visible form, etc., and in respect of external 
  visible form, etc., come to thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past, 
  thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up a hundred 
  and eight.
    
    Or there are eighteen based on internal form, etc., thus: "On 
  account of the internal there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the 
  notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on; and there are eighteen 
  based on external form, etc., thus: "On account of the external there 
  is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such and such,' " 
  and so on. Thus there are thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past, 
  thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up thus the 
  hundred and eight modes of craving (//tanhavicaritani//; see A. 
  4:199/ii, 212).
    
    Again, when a classification is made, they reduce to only six 
  classes of craving -- in terms of their objects, forms and the rest -- 
  and to only three types of craving -- craving for sensual pleasure and 
  the rest. Thus:
  
      Craving should be known by the wise
      Through description and when described
      In detail; it (should be known) again
      Through classification of the detail.
  
    With the arising of feeling there is the arising of craving 
  (//vedanasamudaya tanhasamudayo//): But here the word "feeling" is 
  intended as resultant feeling.[49] How is that the condition for 
  craving in respect of the six sense doors? Because of its ability to 
  produce gratification. For it is through the gratification in pleasant 
  feeling that beings become enamored of that feeling, and after 
  arousing craving for feeling and being seized by lust for feeling, 
  they long only for a desirable visible form in the eye door. And on 
  getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor painters, 
  etc., who provide such objects. Likewise, they long only for a 
  desirable sound, etc., in the ear door, etc. And on getting it, they 
  find gratification in it, and they honor musicians, perfume makers, 
  cooks, spinners and the teachers of the various crafts. Like what? 
  Like those who, being enamored of a child, out of love for the child 
  honor the wet-nurse and give her suitable ghee, milk, etc., to eat and 
  drink. The rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  Feeling
  ~~~~~~~
  42. In the section on feeling, classes of feeling (//vedanakaya//) 
  means groups of feeling. Feeling born of eye-contact ... feeling born 
  of mind-contact (//cakkhusamphassaja vedana ... manosamphassaja 
  vedana//): because of what has come down in the Vibhanga thus: "There 
  is feeling born of eye-contact that is wholesome, that is unwholesome, 
  that is indeterminate" (Vibh. 15), the wholesome, unwholesome and 
  indeterminate feelings that occur in the eye door, etc., are named 
  after the physical base, which is similar to a mother, just as some 
  are named after their mother, such as "Sariputta (Lady Sari's son),"  
  "Mantaniputta (Lady Mantani's son)," etc.
    
    But the word meaning here is this: feeling born of eye-contact 
  (//cakkhusamphassaja vedana//) is feeling that is born with 
  eye-contact as the cause. The same method throughout. This, in the 
  first place, is the all-inclusive explanation. But by way of 
  resultant, in the eye-door there are two eye-consciousnesses, two mind 
  elements, three mind-consciousness elements; feeling should be 
  understood as what is associated with these.[50] This method also 
  applies in the ear door, etc. In the mind door, (feeling) is 
  associated only with the mind-consciousness elements.
    
    With the arising of contact (//phassasamudaya//): But here the 
  arising in the five doors of the feelings that have the five physical 
  bases (as their support) occurs with the arising of the conascent 
  eye-contact. For the rest, eye-contact, etc., are conditions by way of 
  decisive support. In the mind door, the arising of feelings (on the 
  occasion) of registration and of the doorless feelings (on the 
  occasions) of rebirth-linking, life-continuum and death occurs with 
  the arising of the conascent mind-contact.[51] The rest by the method 
  stated.
  
  
  
  Contact
  ~~~~~~~
  46. In the section on contact, eye-contact (//cakkhusamphassa//) is 
  contact in the eye. The same method throughout. Eye-contact ... 
  body-contact (//cakkhusamphasso ... kayasamphasso//): up to this point 
  ten kinds of contact have been stated, namely, the wholesome- and 
  unwholesome-resultants having the five physical bases (as their 
  support). Mind-contact (//manosamphassa//): by this (he indicates) the 
  remaining twenty-two kinds of contact associated with the mundane 
  resultant (types of consciousness).[52] 
  
    With the arising of the sixfold base (//salayatanasamudaya//): The 
  arising of this sixfold contact should be understood to occur by way 
  of the arising of the six bases beginning with the eye-base. The rest 
  by the method stated.
  
  
  
  The Sixfold Base
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  50. In the section on the sixfold base, as regards the eye-base 
  (//cakkhayatana//), etc., whatever should be said has all been said 
  already in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Aggregates and 
  in the Description of the Bases (XIV, 37-52; XV, 1-16).
  
    With the arising of mentality-materiality (//namarupasamudaya//): 
  But here the arising of the sixfold base should be understood to occur 
  from the arising of mentality-materiality according to the method 
  stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising, 
  as to which mentality, which materiality, and which 
  mentality-materiality are a condition for which base (XVII, 206-219).
  
  
  
  Mentality-Materiality
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  54. In the section on mentality-materiality, mentality (//nama//) has 
  the characteristic of bending (//namana//); materiality (//rupa//) has 
  the characteristic of being molested (//ruppana//).[53] In the 
  detailed section, however, feeling (//vedana//) is to be understood as 
  the feeling aggregate, perception (//sanna//) as the perception 
  aggregate, and volition, contact and attention (//cetana phasso 
  manasikaro//) as the formations aggregate. While it is certainly the 
  case that other states are included in the formations aggregate, still 
  these three are found in all classes of consciousness, even the 
  weakest. That is why the formations aggregate is here pointed out only 
  by means of these three. 
  
    The four great elements (//cattari mahabhutani//): this is a 
  designation for the four -- earth, water, fire and air. The reason why 
  these are called "great elements," and other determinations concerning 
  them, are all stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the 
  Materiality Aggregate.[54]
    
    Derived from the four great elements (//catunnan ca mahabhutanam 
  upadaya//): derived from (//upadaya//) = having clung to 
  (//upadayitva//); "having grasped" is the meaning. Some also say 
  "depending upon" (//nissaya//). And here the reading is completed by 
  adding the word "existing" (//vattamanam//). The Pali uses the 
  genitive (in the term for the elements) in the sense of a group. Hence 
  the meaning here should be understood thus: the materiality that 
  exists derived from the group of the four great elements.
    
    Thus materiality taken altogether is to be understood as consisting 
  of all the following: the four great elements beginning with the earth 
  element, and the materiality that exists derived from the four great 
  elements, stated in the canonical Abhidhamma to be of twenty-three 
  kinds by analysis into the eye-base, etc.[55]
    
    With the arising of consciousness (//vinnanasamudaya//): But here 
  the arising of mentality-materiality should be understood to occur 
  with the arising of consciousness according to the method stated in 
  the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising, as to which 
  consciousness is a condition for which mentality, for which 
  materiality, and for which mentality-materiality (XVII, 186-202). The 
  rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  Consciousness
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  58. In the section on consciousness, eye-consciousness 
  (//cakkhuvinnana//) is consciousness in the eye or consciousness born 
  from the eye. So also with ear-, nose-, tongue- and 
  body-consciousness. But with the other one, i.e. mind-consciousness 
  (//manovinnana//), mind itself is consciousness. This is a designation 
  for the resultant consciousness of the three (mundane) planes of 
  existence except for the two groups of fivefold consciousness.[56]
  
    With the arising of formations (//sankharasamudaya//): But here the 
  arising of consciousness should be understood to occur with the 
  arising of formations according to the method stated in the 
  Visuddhimagga, as to which formation is a condition for which 
  consciousness (XVII, 175-185).
  
  
  
  Formations
  ~~~~~~~~~~
  62. In the section on formations, a formation (//sankhara//) has the 
  characteristic of forming (//abhisankharanalakkhana//). But in the 
  detailed section, the bodily formation (//kayasankhara//) is a 
  formation that proceeds from the body. This is a designation for the 
  twenty kinds of bodily volition -- the eight sense-sphere wholesome 
  and twelve unwholesome -- that occur by way of activation in the 
  bodily door.[57] The verbal formation (//vacisankhara//) is a 
  formation that proceeds from speech. This is a designation for the 
  (same) twenty kinds of verbal volition that occur by way of breaking 
  into speech in the door of speech. The mental formation 
  (//cittasankhara//) is a formation that proceeds from the mind. This 
  is a designation for the twenty-nine kinds of mental volition -- the 
  mundane wholesome and unwholesome -- that occur in one sitting alone 
  in thought, and which do not cause activation of the bodily and verbal 
  doors.[58] 
    
    With the arising of ignorance (//avijjasamudaya//): But here 
  ignorance should be understood as a condition for the wholesome by way 
  of decisive support and for the unwholesome by way of conascence as 
  well. The rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  Ignorance
  ~~~~~~~~~
  66. In the section on ignorance, not knowing about suffering (//dukkhe 
  annanam//) means not knowing about the truth of suffering. This is a 
  designation for delusion (//moha//). The same method with respect to 
  "not knowing about the origin of suffering," and so on.
    
    Herein, not knowing about suffering should be understood in four 
  ways: as to containment (//antogadhato//), as to physical basis 
  (//vatthuto//), as to object (//arammanato//), and as to concealment 
  (//paticchadanato//). Thus, because of being included in the truth of 
  suffering, it ("not knowing" or ignorance) is contained in suffering; 
  and the truth of suffering is its physical basis by being its support 
  condition; and (the truth of suffering) is its object by being its 
  object condition; and it conceals the truth of suffering by preventing 
  the penetration of its real characteristic and by not allowing 
  knowledge to occur in regard to it.
    
    Not knowing about the origin (of suffering) should be understood in 
  three ways: as to physical basis, as to object, and as to concealment. 
  And not knowing about cessation and the way (to cessation) should be 
  understood in one way only: as to concealment. For non-knowledge only 
  conceals cessation and the way by preventing the penetration of their 
  real characteristics and by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard 
  to them. But it is not contained in them because it is not included in 
  this pair of truths. And these two truths are not its physical basis 
  because they are not conascent. Nor are they its object because of its 
  non-occurrence on account of them. For the last pair of truths are 
  difficult to see because of their profundity, and non-knowledge, which 
  is blind, does not occur there. But the first (pair of truths) is 
  profound in the sense of opposition because of the difficulty in 
  seeing the characteristic of their intrinsic nature; it occurs there 
  by way of obsession by the perversions.
    
    Furthermore: About suffering (//dukkhe//): to this extent ignorance 
  is indicated as to inclusion, as to physical basis, as to object, and 
  as to function. About the origin of suffering (//dukkhasamudaye//): to 
  this extent, as to basis, as to object, and as to function. About the 
  cessation of suffering (//dukkhanirodhe//) and about the way leading 
  to the cessation of suffering (//dukkhanirodhagaminiya patipadaya//): 
  to this extent, as to function. But without distinction, (in each 
  instance) ignorance is described in terms of its intrinsic nature by 
  the phrase "not knowing."
    
    With the arising of the taints (//asavasamudaya//): But here the 
  taint of sensual desire and the taint of being are conditions for 
  ignorance by way of conascence, etc.; the taint of ignorance, only by 
  way of decisive support. And here the ignorance that had arisen 
  previously should be understood as the taint of ignorance. That is a 
  decisive support condition for the ignorance that arises subsequently. 
  The rest by the method stated.
  
  
  
  The Taints
  ~~~~~~~~~~
  70. In the section on the taints, with the arising of ignorance 
  (//avijjasamudaya//): Here ignorance is a condition for the taint of 
  sensual desire and the taint of being by way of decisive support, 
  etc.; (it is a condition) for the taint of ignorance only by way of 
  decisive support. And here the ignorance that arises subsequently 
  should be understood as the taint of ignorance. The previously arisen 
  ignorance itself becomes a decisive support condition for the 
  subsequently arisen taint of ignorance. The rest by the aforesaid 
  method. 
    
    This section is stated by way of showing the condition for the 
  ignorance which heads the factors of dependent arising. Stated thus, 
  the undiscoverability (//anamataggata//) of any beginning of samsara 
  is established. How? Because with the arising of the taints there is 
  the arising of ignorance, and with the arising of ignorance there is 
  the arising of the taints. Thus the taints are a condition for 
  ignorance, and ignorance is a condition for the taints. Having shown 
  this, (it follows that) no first point of ignorance is manifest, and 
  because none is manifest the undiscoverability of any beginning of 
  samsara is proven.[59]
  
  
  
  Conclusion
  ~~~~~~~~~~
  Thus in all this sutta sixteen sections have been stated: the section 
  on the courses of kamma, the section on nutriment, the section on 
  suffering, and the sections on aging and death, birth, being, 
  clinging, craving, feeling, contact, the sixfold base, 
  mentality-materiality, consciousness, formations, ignorance and the 
  taints. 
    
    As to these, in each individual section there is a twofold analysis 
  -- in brief and in detail -- amounting to thirty-two cases. Thus in 
  this sutta, in these thirty-two cases, the Four (Noble) Truths are 
  expounded. Among these, in the sixteen cases stated in detail, 
  Arahantship is expounded.
    
    But according to the opinion of the Elder, the four truths and the 
  four paths are expounded in the thirty-two cases.[60] Thus in the 
  entire Word of the Buddha comprised in the five great Nikayas, there 
  is no sutta except for this Discourse on Right View where the Four 
  (Noble) Truths are explained thirty-two times and where Arahantship is 
  explained thirty-two times.
    
    That is what the Venerable Sariputta said (//idam avoc'ayasma 
  Sariputto//): The Venerable Sariputta spoke this Discourse on Right 
  View, having adorned it with sixty-four divisions -- thirty-two 
  expositions of the four truths and thirty-two expositions of 
  Arahantship. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted in the 
  Venerable Sariputta's words.
  
  
  
  In the Papancasudani, the Commentary to the Majjhima Nikaya, the 
  Explanation of the Discourse on Right View is concluded.
  
                            * * * * * * * *
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                          
                                 NOTES
  
  
  1. The term sammaditthi is ordinarily used to mean simply a state, the 
    path factor of right view. Here, however, the Pali expression is 
    used as a masculine noun to mean, in the first instance, a person 
    possessing right view; hence it has been rendered "one of right 
    view." The commentator contrasts this unusual usage of the term 
    with the more common usage where sammaditthi signifies a state 
    (//dhamma//), that is, the path factor rather than the individual 
    endowed with that state.
  
  2. The knowledge of kamma as one's own (//kammassakatanana//) is often 
    expressed in the Suttas thus: "I am the owner of my kamma, the heir 
    of my kamma, I spring from my kamma, I am bound to my kamma, I have 
    kamma as my refuge. Whatever kamma I perform, good or bad, of that 
    I am the heir." In short, it is knowledge of the moral efficacy of 
    action, of the fact that one's willed deeds fashion one's destiny. 
    Knowledge in conformity with the truths (//saccanulomikanana//) is 
    conceptual knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, accompanied by 
    understanding and acceptance of them.
  
  3. The understanding or wisdom (//panna//) connected with the paths 
    and fruits is supramundane because its object is the supramundane 
    dhamma, Nibbana, and because it leads to the overcoming of the 
    world.
  
  4. A disciple in higher training (//sekha//) is one at any of the 
    three lower levels of sanctity -- a stream-enterer, once-returner, 
    or non-returner -- or one who has reached their respective paths. 
    His right view is said to be fixed in destiny (//niyata//) because 
    it necessarily leads to final liberation.
  
  5. The "one beyond training" (//asekha//) is the Arahant, so called 
    because he has completed the threefold training in virtue, 
    concentration and wisdom.
  
  6. The ninefold supramundane Dhamma: the four paths, the four 
    fruitions, and Nibbana.
  
  7. The interpretation of "the bhikkhus" and "the Elder" is offered by 
    Sub. Cy., which also presents an alternative interpretation, based 
    on the commentary to the Vatthupama Sutta (M.7) according to which 
    the bhikkhus are the pupils of the Elder Mahasangharakkhita and 
    "the Elder" is the Elder Mahasangharakkhita.
  
  8. See commentary to the third parajika offence.
  
  9. See commentary to the second parajika offence.
  
  10. The meaning of several of these terms, obscure in the original 
    Pali, has been elaborated with the aid of the Sub. Cy.
  
  11. Consent (//adhivasana//) is included to cover the case where one 
    of the partners is initially an unwilling victim of another's 
    assault, but during the course of union consents to the act and 
    thereby becomes a participant.
  
  12. These are references to the two great classics of Hindu India, the 
    Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
  
  13. Wrong views of fixed destiny (//niyata micchaditthi//) are views 
    which deny the moral efficacy of action or which tend to undermine 
    the foundations of morality. For the most common examples, see 
    D.2/i, 52-56, and M.76/i, 515-18.
  
  14. The chief factor in the first seven courses of kamma is volition; 
    the other three courses are identical with the mental factors of 
    greed, hatred and wrong view, which are associated with volition in 
    the states of consciousness in which they arise.
  
  15. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of consciousness, 
    according to which wholesome sense-sphere consciousness is of eight 
    types, four associated with knowledge, four dissociated from 
    knowledge. The abstinences, according to the Abhidhamma, occur in 
    sense-sphere consciousness only one at a time on occasions when one 
    deliberately abstains from some wrong. In supramundane 
    consciousness all three abstinences -- right speech, right action 
    and right livelihood -- occur together simultaneously.
  
  16. Right view is synonymous with the mental factor of wisdom 
    (//panna//) or non-delusion (//amoha//); it is always accompanied 
    by the other two wholesome roots, though the latter do not 
    necessarily occur in conjunction with right view.
  
  17. Literally, or in the strict sense (//nippariyayena//), only 
    covetousness and greed, being synonyms of craving (//tanha//), 
    count as the origin of suffering. But in a looser or figurative 
    manner of exposition (//pariyayena//) all the roots are the truth 
    of the origin, since as roots of kamma they help to sustain the 
    round of rebirth and suffering.
  
  18. The guideline of conversion (//avattahara//) is one of the methods 
    of deduction in the exegetical guide, the Nettippakarana. According 
    to this guideline, an expositor of a sutta is to extract from a 
    particular text a standard doctrinal concept belonging to a 
    dichotomy, and then taking this concept as a basis, he is to show 
    that the other member of the dichotomy is also implied by the 
    passage under consideration, and therefore "turns up" when the 
    first member is mentioned.
  
  19. The path of non-return (//anagamimagga//) is stated because this 
    path eradicates all sensual lust and aversion.
  
  20. The path of Arahantship is implied by the eradication of conceit 
    and ignorance and by the arousing of true knowledge.
  
  21. The verb //aharati// normally means "to bring," but here it is 
    rendered as "nourish" to underscore its connection with //ahara//, 
    nutriment.
  
  22. On the four //yoni// or modes of generation, see M.12/i, 73.
  
  23. According to the Abhidhamma, the nutriment proper is the material 
    phenomenon called nutritive essence (//oja//), while the solid food 
    ingested is the mere "basis" (//vatthu//) of the nutritive essence.
  
  24. The point is that while in conventional terms food substances are 
    distinguished as gross or subtle, this distinction is made in terms 
    of the physical base only. The Abhidhamma classifies nutritive 
    essence as subtle materiality (//sukhumarupa//); it contrasts with 
    gross materiality (//olarikarupa//), which includes only the five 
    sense organs and their objects.
  
  25. This is the highest realm among the sense-sphere heavens. Above 
    this come the Brahma realms, where physical nutriment is 
    non-existent.
  
  26. This is the simplest kind of material group (//rupakalapa//) 
    recognized by the Abhidhamma theory of matter. It consists of the 
    four primary elements, along with color, smell, taste, and 
    nutritive essence. All the more complex material groups also 
    contain these eight phenomena as their foundation. Material groups 
    in a living organism require an input of nutriment in order to 
    endure in continuity.
  
  27. Conascence condition (//sahajatapaccaya//) is the condition 
    whereby the conditioning state contributes to the arising or 
    maintenance of another state, the conditionally arisen state, when 
    the latter arises simultaneously with itself. Consciousness is a 
    conascence condition for the three other mental aggregates -- 
    feeling, perception and mental formations -- both at rebirth and 
    during the course of life. At rebirth it is also a conascence 
    condition for the "triple continuity," i.e. the three material 
    decads of body-sensitivity, sexual determination and the 
    heart-base. Each of these consists of the above-mentioned eight 
    material units along with physical life and, as the tenth factor, 
    the material phenomenon after which it is named.
  
  28. Kammically acquired materiality (//upadinnarupa//) is matter that 
    is born of kamma. It includes the physical sense faculties, the 
    life faculty, masculinity, femininity, and the coexisting material 
    phenomena in the same group. Though such types of matter are 
    produced by kamma rather than by nutriment, they require nutriment 
    to sustain them in continuity.
  
  29. The Lakkhana Samyutta (S.19/ii, 254-62) describes the torments 
    experienced by beings in the realm of the petas or "afflicted 
    spirits."
  
  30. These similes are taken from the Puttamamsa Sutta, the Discourse 
    on Son's Flesh (S.12:63/ii, 97-100). See Nyanaponika Thera, The 
    Four Nutriments of Life (BPS Wheel No. 104/105, 1967), pp. 19-40, 
    for the sutta along with its commentary.
  
  31. A //yojana// is about seven miles.
  
  32. The cow-observance and the dog-observance are forms of 
    self-mortification which ascetics of the Buddha's time practiced in 
    the hope of purification; see M.57/i, 387. Apparently, women also 
    observed them for short periods in the hope they would make them 
    fertile.
  
  33. The commentary to the Puttamamsa Sutta develops this analogy in 
    greater detail than the present commentary.
  
  34. The sutta elaborates as follows: If the cow stands, the creatures 
    in the air attack it; if it leans against a wall, the creatures in 
    the wall attack it; if it lies down, the creatures in the ground 
    attack it; if it enters a pool of water, the creatures in the water 
    attack it.
  
  35. Contact arises from the coming together of an object, a physical 
    basis or sense faculty (//vatthu//), and the corresponding type of 
    consciousness.
  
  36. The simile as given in the sutta is this: Two strong men grab hold 
    of a weaker man by both arms and drag him towards a blazing 
    charcoal pit. He wriggles and struggles to get free because he 
    knows that if he is thrown into the pit, he will meet death or 
    deadly pain.
  
  37. The king's men arrest a thief and bring him before the king. The 
    king orders him struck with a hundred spears in the morning, 
    another hundred at noon, and a third hundred in the evening. The 
    man survives but experiences deadly pain. 
  
  38. See note 27.
  
  39. The eight types of consciousness accompanied by greed are 
    distinguished by the presence or absence of wrong view, by their 
    accompanying feeling which may be pleasant or neutral, and by 
    whether they are spontaneous or prompted.
  
  40. The principle of the Four Noble Truths can be discerned in the 
    format of the exposition: a particular item X, the arising of X, 
    the cessation of X, and the way to the cessation of X.
  
  41. In Pali the repetition //tesam tesam//, lit. "of them, of them," 
    is understood to imply complete inclusiveness. The same applies to 
    //tamhi tamhi//, "in that, in that," just below.
  
  42. Whereas the previous definitions were framed in conventional 
    terminology, those valid in the ultimate sense (//paramatthato//) 
    define their subject solely in terms of "ultimate realities" such 
    as aggregates and sense bases.
  
  43. The various realms of existence are analyzed as threefold on the 
    basis of the number of aggregates existing there. One-constituent 
    being is the non-percipient realm (//asannibhumi//), which includes 
    only the aggregate of material form. Four-constituent being is the 
    four immaterial realms, which contain the four mental aggregates 
    but not the aggregate of material form. Five-constituent being 
    comprises all other realms, in which all five aggregates are 
    present.
  
  44. It seems that in the sense-sphere heavens, at death the beings 
    simply dissipate into thin air, without leaving behind any corpse.
  
  45. Decisive support condition (//upanissayapaccaya//) and conascence 
    condition (//sahajatapaccaya//) are the two chief conditions among 
    the twenty-four conditions of the Patthana or Abhidhammic system of 
    conditional relations. Decisive support holds between a 
    conditioning state and a conditioned state that it helps to arise 
    across an interval of time. Conascence condition holds between a 
    conditioning state and a conditioned state that arise 
    simultaneously. See also note 27 above.
  
  46. Clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a doctrine of 
    self are both types of wrong view, but as they are enumerated as 
    individual kinds of clinging in their own right, they are not 
    included under clinging to views.
  
  47. See above, note 32.
  
  48. These are conditional relations that hold between successive 
    mind-moments in the javana phase of a single cognitive process 
    (//cittavithi//).
  
  49. Resultant feeling alone is intended here because this is an 
    exposition of the round of existence, and in the formula of 
    dependent arising the factors from consciousness through feeling 
    are classified as the resultant phase of the round.
  
  50. The two eye-consciousness elements are the wholesome-resultant and 
    the unwholesome-resultant; the two resultant mind elements are the 
    wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant receiving 
    consciousness (//sampaticchanacitta//); the three resultant 
    mind-consciousness elements are three types of investigating 
    consciousness (//santiranacitta//).
  
  51. The registration consciousness (//tadarammanacitta//) is a 
    resultant type of consciousness that occurs through any of the 
    sense doors. Its function is to register the datum that had been 
    the object of the preceding javana series. The rebirth, 
    life-continuum (//bhavanga//) and death consciousnesses are 
    resultants that are considered to be "doorless" (//advarika//) 
    because they occur at an inner subliminal level, not through the 
    intercourse of sense organs and sense objects.
  
  52. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of thirty-two types 
    of resultant consciousness, of which twenty-two remain besides the 
    ten types of sense-consciousness, five resultants of the 
    unwholesome and five of the wholesome. The details are not 
    necessary here.
  
  53. These two definitions involve word plays difficult to reproduce in 
    English. Ven. Nanamoli has a note suggesting, half flippantly, 
    "minding" for namana and "mattering" for ruppana.
  
  54. In fact the Visuddhimagga discusses the four great elements not in 
    its chapter on the Description of the Aggregates (Ch. XIV), but in 
    the chapter on the meditation subject called the definition of the 
    elements (Ch. XI).
  
  55. Some instances of derived materiality are: the five sense 
    faculties, color, sound, smell, taste, the life faculty, sexual 
    determination, nutritive essence, space, etc.
  
  56. The three planes of existence were enumerated in Section 30. Only 
    resultant consciousness is taken into account here because this is 
    an exposition of the round.
  
  57. The figures for the types of consciousness again come from the 
    Abhidhamma. These types of consciousness can come to expression 
    either through the door of bodily action or the door of speech, or 
    they can remain within and not gain outer expression.
  
  58. The nine types of volition which do not come to expression by body 
    or speech are the five volitions of the five fine-material-sphere 
    jhanas and the four of the four immaterial-sphere jhanas.
  
  59. Elsewhere the Buddha says: "A first point of ignorance cannot be 
    discovered, of which it can be said: Before that there was no 
    ignorance and it came to be after that" (A.10:61/v,113). In that 
    sutta the Buddha cites the five hindrances as the condition for 
    ignorance, but as these in turn presuppose ignorance, the vicious 
    cycle is again established.
  
  60. For the identity of the dissenting Elder, see Section 3 and note 7.
  
                            * * * * * * * *


                 THE BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
  
  The BPS is an approved charity dedicated to making known the Teaching
  of the Buddha, which has a vital message for people of all creeds.
  Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books and
  booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications include
  accurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard
  reference works, as well as original contemporary expositions of
  Buddhist thought and practice. These works present Buddhism as it
  truly is -- a dynamic force which has influenced receptive minds for
  the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was when it
  first arose. A full list of our publications will be sent upon request
  with an enclosure of U.S. $1.00 or its equivalent to cover air mail
  postage.

  Write to:
  
       The Hony. Secretary
       BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
       P.O. Box 61
       54, Sangharaja Mawatha
       Kandy           Sri Lanka
       
  or
       
       The Barre Center for Buddhist Studies
       Lockwood Road
       Barre, MA 01005
       Tel: (508) 355-2347


                            * * * * * * * *


                       DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENT
                       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 TITLE OF WORK: The Discourse on Right View (The Wheel Publication No. 377/379)
 FILENAME: WHEEL377.ZIP
 AUTHOR: Bhikkhu Bodhi, ed.
 AUTHOR'S ADDRESS:   c/o Buddhist Publication Society
 PUBLISHER'S ADDRESS: Buddhist Publication Society
                    P.O. Box 61
                    54, Sangharaja Mawatha
                    Kandy, Sri Lanka
 COPYRIGHT HOLDER: Buddhist Publication Society (1991)
 DATE OF PUBLICATION: 1991
 RIGHTS AND RESTRICTIONS: See paragraph below.
 DATE OF DHARMANET DISTRIBUTION: October 1994
 ORIGIN SITE: Access to Insight BBS, Pepperell MA * (508) 433-5847
        (DharmaNet 96:903/1)


 The copyright holder retains all rights to this work and hereby grants
 electronic distribution rights to DharmaNet International. This work may
 be freely copied and redistributed electronically, provided that the file
 contents (including this Agreement) are not altered in any way and that it
 is distributed at no cost to the recipient. You may make printed copies of
 this work for your personal use; further distribution of printed copies
 requires permission from the copyright holder. If this work is used by a
 teacher in a class, or is quoted in a review, the publisher shall be
 notified of such use.
                                            
 It is the spirit of dana, freely offered generosity, which has kept the
 entire Buddhist tradition alive for more than 2,500 years. If you find
 this work of value, please consider sending a donation to the author or
 publisher, so that these works may continue to be made available. May your
 generosity contribute to the happiness of all beings everywhere.
 
       DharmaNet International, P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley, CA 94704-4951

[end of file]
