THE ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE ATLANTIC Volume 3, Number 2 - September 1991 ########################### TABLE OF CONTENTS ########################### * ASA Membership/Article Submission Information * The Battle Against Light Pollution in Central Ohio - Earl W. Phillips, Jr. * Astronomy in Ancient Mesopotamia - Stacey Abrams ############################ ASA MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION The Electronic Journal of the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic (EJASA) is published monthly by the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic, Incorporated. The ASA is a non-profit organization dedicated to the advancement of amateur and professional astronomy and space exploration, and to the social and educational needs of its members. ASA membership application is open to all with an interest in astronomy and space exploration. Members receive the Journal of the ASA (hardcopy sent through United States Mail), the Astronomical League's REFLECTOR magazine, and may additionally purchase discount subscriptions to ASTRONOMY, DEEP SKY, ODYSSEY, SKY & TELESCOPE, and TELESCOPE MAKING magazines. For information on membership, you may contact the Society at any of the following addresses: Astronomical Society of the Atlantic (ASA) c/o Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA) Georgia State University (GSU) Atlanta, Georgia 30303 U.S.A. asa@chara.gsu.edu ASA BBS: (404) 985-0408, 300/1200 Baud. or telephone the Society Recording at (404) 264-0451 to leave your address and/or receive the latest Society news. ASA Officers and Council - President - Don Barry Vice President - Nils Turner Secretary - Ken Poshedly Treasurer - Alan Fleming Board of Advisors - Bill Bagnuolo, Jim Bitsko, Eric Greene Council - Jim Bitsko, Bill Black, Bill Crane, Toni Douglas, Ruth Greene, Larry Klaes, Karla Poshedly, Tano Scigliano, John Stauter, Gary Thompson, Bob Vickers ARTICLE SUBMISSIONS - Article submissions to the EJASA on astronomy and space exploration are most welcome. Please send your on-line articles in ASCII format to Larry Klaes, EJASA Editor, at the following net addresses or the above Society addresses: klaes@mtwain.enet.dec.com or - ...!decwrl!mtwain.enet.dec.com!klaes or - klaes%mtwain.dec@decwrl.enet.dec.com or - klaes%mtwain.enet.dec.com@uunet.uu.net You may also use the above addresses for EJASA back issue requests, letters to the editor, and ASA membership information. When sending your article submissions, please be certain to include either a network or regular mail address where you can be reached, a telephone number, and a brief biographical sketch. DISCLAIMER - Submissions are welcome for consideration. Articles submitted, unless otherwise stated, become the property of the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic, Inc. Though the articles will not be used for profit, they are subject to editing, abridgment, and other changes. Copying or reprinting of the EJASA, in part or in whole, is encouraged, provided clear attribution is made to the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic, the Electronic Journal, and the author(s). This Journal is Copyright (c) 1991 by the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic, Inc. THE BATTLE AGAINST LIGHT POLLUTION IN CENTRAL OHIO By Earl W. Phillips, Jr. My fight for the removal of fixtures which pollute the night sky with their wasteful lighting first came about primarily from my in- terest in using the 80-centimeter (32-inch) reflector telescope at Perkins Observatory in Delaware, Ohio. The fact that the night skies over central Ohio are clear, on average, only twenty-five percent of the year has left Perkins Observatory languishing as a research facility. Currently it is being used primarily as a public education facility in the way of monthly public programs offered by the local amateur astronomy group and Ohio Wesleyan University, the owner of the facility. Recently, Robin Riordan of Ohio State University, Chris Bero of Ohio Wesleyan, and myself have begun to "wake up" the observatory regarding research. We have started a program of photometric research on Cepheid variable stars. In the future, we hope to begin a spec- troscopic research program, along with other astronomical research proposals to be submitted. Since I reserve the telescope for my own personal use about six nights each month, in addition to the research, I have good reason to want to save the observatory from light pollution. Until recently, our work has gone quite well. There has been relatively little development of the area surrounding Perkins, mostly because the geography forbids large projects. Being bordered on the west by a highway and a protected river, the north by a theological school, and the south and east by neighbors wishing to retain the "country" setting of the area, there have been few proposals for building up the area. Added to this is the fact that the township where the observatory is situated, Liberty Township, has enacted lighting regulations specifically for the protection of the observatory. (1-2) Alas, this situation was not to last. A local automobile dealership owner seized upon an opportunity passed on by a resident retiring away from the area and purchased a twenty-acre plot of land just south and west of the observatory, with the intent of putting in a new car dealership. His petition for rezoning was approved by the township trustees in a much-contested decision, which is currently being fought by the residents in the form of a referendum, and he was allowed to build a dealership on the land. Because of the actions by the area residents and local professional and amateur astronomers, however, he had several restrictions placed on his approval. (3) Then, I discovered to my dismay that another automobile dealership had been built 1.6 kilometers (one mile) north of the observatory! As if this were not enough, yet another car dealer petitioned his township for rezoning to allow him to raise his business just 0.8- kilometer (0.5-mile) north! The situation was rapidly getting serious. I felt I had to do something, so I decided to see if I could get lighting restrictions enacted in every township close enough to the observatory likely to produce great harm. The first step was to get a copy of the lighting restrictions already enacted in Liberty Township (1) and send a copy to each of the local governments surrounding Perkins Observatory. It turned out that there are six of them. I then had to start getting involved in the local political scene and do what I can to lobby the local governments to amend their zoning codes to reflect the lighting restrictions. This turned out to be a much bigger job than I ever thought. Local politics is as ugly a scene as you may have imagined: To "play the game", one must tread very lightly, whilst still getting one's plea heard. Of course, I also requested and received the assistance of my local amateur astronomy club, though I must say that I was initially surprised at how begrudgingly this came. It is a long, hard fight, with no certain successes. In fact, when you are against the interests of "big money", things are more than likely not to go your way, so I understand why the club was hesitant about getting involved. Another thing I did was to begin dialogues with each of the car dealership owners to request the use of low-pressure sodium (LPS) light bulbs in their security lights. In speaking with them, I found a general unwillingness in making the switch among all but one dealer. For those currently unwilling to switch to LPS lights, I intend to present them with copies of the International Dark Sky Association worksheet (4) on the energy and money-saving aspects of the use of such bulbs. Hopefully, the logic of the continued usefulness of the observatory coupled with the savings to their own pocketbooks will have enough of an impact to convince them to change. It has also been necessary to continue dialogues, in the form of presentations and speeches on the "evils" of light pollution, to the area residents. I have attended several residents' group meetings, and as a result, have gathered the support of virtually all the resi- dents within an eight-kilometer (five-mile) radius of the observatory, with only a few exceptions. In fact, it was with the support of the area residents that we got the restrictions placed upon the dealerships recently allowed in. I cannot stress enough the importance of the neighbors' help. After all, it is their children as well as themselves who attend our public programs. Faced with the possibility of having to close down Perkins Observatory and losing the beauty and knowledge of the heavens, it is most impressive to watch how fiercely the popula- tion will fight for their rights to nature and understanding. It is going to be a long, hard battle to defeat light pollution, one that has only just begun. I believe I will easily face another few years of struggling to keep the night dark. In the end, the contractors and developers may win and I will inevitably lose against the growing march of urbanization, but it will certainly not be with- out having tried. When I am done, central Ohio will at least know that there is a real treasure in their midst in the form of Perkins Observatory. In this light, this fight is even fun because of the challenge. I urge each of you faced with the loss of night sky darkness to take up the effort locally. If nothing else, please do your part to make others aware of the sky above them. Offer your friends and neighbors views of the stars and planets through your astronomical instruments. Explain to them what they have just seen and bask in the "oohs" and "aahs" you will undoubtedly hear. Then explain how turning on even a single light can ruin that magnificent view of the Universe. You will find it is easier than you think to "convert" someone to the battle against light pollution and the preservation of how we observe the Cosmos. Update - From Earl Phillips, dated September 20, 1991: "Another township, Orange Township, has agreed, as has Berlin Township, to begin the pro- cess of amending their zoning codes to include lighting restrictions, at my frequent urgings. These are townships immediately near the observatory and will help the cause immensely!" References - 1 - Lighting Regulations Amended to the Liberty Township, Ohio Zoning Codes, Effective March 1, 1991: 1. General Requirements - All lighting shall be controlled in such a way as to not shine up into the sky or onto any neighboring properties. Examples of ways in which this shall be accomplished are: a. Use of fully shielded cut-off fixtures; b. Directing light fixtures downward rather than upward; c. Shielding the light in such a way that the light emitting portion of the fixture cannot be seen at a reasonable distance. 2. Specific Requirements a. Where used for security purposes or to illuminate walkways, roadways, equipment yards, and parking lots, only fully shielded cut-off style outdoor light fixtures shall be utilized. b. Where used for signs or for decorative effects or recreational facilities, such as for building, landscape, or ballfield illumination, the outdoor light fixtures shall be equipped with automatic timing devices and shielded and focused to minimize light pollution. c. All outdoor light fixtures installed and maintained upon private property within all zoning districts shall be turned off between 11:00 P.M. and Sunrise EXCEPT when used for security purposes or to illuminate walkways, roadways, equipment yards, and parking lots. d. All illuminated signs for commercial purposes shall be turned off between 11:00 P.M. and Sunrise, EXCEPT that signs may be illuminated while the business facility is open to the public. All forms of flashing, moving, or digital lights shall be prohibited. e. All outdoor light pole fixtures shall not exceed a maximum height of nine (9) meters (thirty (30) feet). f. In addition to the provisions of this Article all outdoor light fixtures shall be installed in conformity with all other applicable provisions of this Resolution. 3. Exemptions a. All outdoor light fixtures producing light directly by the combustion of fossil fuels, such as kerosene lanterns or gas lamps, are exempt from the requirements of this Section. b. All low-voltage lighting and holiday lighting shall be exempt from the requirements of this Section. 2 - "Curbing Light Pollution in Ohio", by Robert Bunge, EJASA, June, 1991 3 - Restrictions Placed upon the Dealership Planning to Build in Liberty Township: 1. The business must close no later than 8 P.M. 2. All except security lights must be turned off upon closing. 3. All security lighting must be of the fully shielded, cut- off type fixtures, pointing straight down. 4. Security lighting is restricted to the one building the dealer is allowed to build, and one pole type lamp, not to exceed nine meters (thirty feet) in height, behind the building. 5. Dealer is responsible for planting Scotch or other type of pine trees around the perimeter of the land, for the purpose of softening the direct lighting that may affect the neighbors. 6. Dealer agrees to donate a twelve-acre buffer, surrounding the eight-acre dealership, to the township, to be designated forever as a "no-build" site. 7. If the dealer is found in violation of any of these restrictions, the permit to operate is revoked, and the land is designated as a "no-build" site. 4 - International Dark Sky Association, Dave Crawford, President, 3545 N. Stewart, Tucson, Arizona 85716, U.S.A. Related EJASA Articles - "Stopping Space and Light Pollution", by Larry Klaes and Phil Karn - September 1989 "When the Light Gets in Your Eyes, You Shouldn't Have to Drive to the Country", by James Smith and Ken Poshedly - February 1991 "Curbing Light Pollution in Ohio", by Robert Bunge - June 1991 "Street Lights: The Real Cost", by Steve and Stephanie Binkley - August 1991 About the Author - Earl W. Phillips is an avid amateur astronomer currently residing in Columbus, Ohio. Earl is a Trustee of the Columbus Astronomical Society and a member of the group that maintains and operates "Big Ear", the 33-meter (110-foot) Kraus-type radio telescope in Delaware, Ohio. Earl is also Chief Observer of Weitkamp Observatory at Otter- bein College in Westerville, Ohio. He is a member of a team conduc- ting photometric research on Cepheid variables at Perkins Observatory in Delaware, using their 80-centimeter (32-inch) reflector telescope. Earl may be contacted through the following network addresses: ephillip@magnus.ircc.ohio-state.edu ephillip@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA by Stacey Abrams Mesopotamia, the ancient land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in southwest Asia, was far more advanced than many other emerging civilizations of its time. By the year 3000 B.C., the Mesopotamian culture had developed an irrigation system, building methods using clay bricks rather than wood or mud, and a system of writing. Mesopotamia also made explorations in science and mathe- matics. While much ancient knowledge of astronomy is attributed to the works of Greek astronomers conducted centuries later, the people of Mesopotamia had begun to delve into the oldest of sciences as far back as 4000 B.C.. These early scholars recorded their findings on thousands of clay tablets belonging to both the Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. The tablets, which have been excavated in various parts of ancient Mesopo- tamia - primarily Sumer - have been difficult to decipher. However, the perusal of these tablets have resulted in many important disclo- sures useful to the present day. In the Babylonian civilization, both astronomy and astrology were the provinces of the priests. The society's rigid caste system re- stricted education, therefore the opportunity to study and build on existing knowledge fell to this upper class. In their professional work, the priests' religious activities included prognostications in both astronomy and astrology. In later Mesopotamian civilization, the priests began to move away from the pure science of astronomy and into the more vernacular astrology, often losing the clarity of their earlier work. Likewise, the Chaldeans never made the progress in astronomy eventually achieved by the Greeks. Still, they are credited with some discoveries which predate their Greek counterparts. Much of the data was collected before the era of Nabonassar, the time period which occurred after the destruction of the Assyrian capital city of Nineveh in the Seventh Century B.C.. The historical records accumulated over the course of many centuries before the destruction of Nineveh made it possible to verify and establish short-range astro- nomical predictions. The information found on the clay tablets include both observa- tions and calculations of the motions of the planets. The Chaldeans did less with astronomy than the Babylonians. Nevertheless, one impor- tant Chaldean discovery was a method of predicting, within a certain degree of accuracy, the apparent motion of the planets as they sped through the sky. These predictions included times of retrograde (backwards) motion, helical rising and setting, and conjunctions with principal stars. The Chaldeans were also able to calculate the times of Earth's Moon's "new" phase as well as lunar and solar eclipses. Babylonian astronomy can be divided into two periods: The ancient period extending from antiquity to the destruction of Nineveh in the year 607 B.C. and the second period, beginning with the end of Nineveh to 1 B.C.. Very little is known about the first period. During that time, Mesopotamian astronomy was poorly differentiated from astrology. The priests used their knowledge as a tool in practice of their re- ligion. However, by the second period, astronomy as a pure science had begun to take form. Some of the oldest astronomical artifacts are astrolabe tablets. These clay tablets consisted of three concentric circles divided by twelve radii into twelve sections. Each of the thirty-six fields contained the names of constellations and simple numbers. No one yet understands the significance of these numbers. It is believed that the numbers represented the months of the Babylonian calendar. These calendars are similar to calendars developed by the Egyptians. Astrolabes are still used today to determine the relative positions of stars and planets. The Babylonian calendar was lunar and based on the New Moon phase, i.e. numbered according to the days elapsed after the Moon reappeared from the end of its waning cycle. Because the seasons were governed by a solar calendar, the Babylonians derived a luni- solar calendar which consisted of twelve months, with a thirteenth one added occasionally to keep the years consistent. Some extant calendrical records also show the presence of a seven-day week system. It varied from place to place throughout Babylon. The final day, with the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty- eighth of each month were considered "cursed". As such, many acti- vities were suspended on these days, and the astronomers-astrologers created rituals to ward off the supposed evil of those dates. It is from the Babylonian astronomers that the divisions for the 360 degrees of a circle comes. The Babylonians divided the day into twelve intervals called "kaspu". The solar kaspu was the span of thirty degrees which the Sun travels in two hours of daily motion across Earth's sky. The Babylonians used the arc of one degree as a unit of angular space, just as is done today. They expanded their system to include units of time which correspond to four modern minutes, which is approximately the path taken by Earth in one day of its yearly revolution around the Sun. The Babylonians also predicted certain celestial phenomena, such as eclipses and lunar periods. They began their studies with the eclipse of March 19, 721 B.C.. Calculations were difficult because the astronomers had no instruments of high accuracy. Both the Chal- deans and Babylonian eclipse records are used in studying long-term variations in the lunar orbit in modern theories. Solar eclipses were the most difficult for these ancient cultures to predict. Because the method of observation was to establish lookers at certain points to watch over a specific period of time, one observer might miss five or six solar eclipses due to cloudy weather and poorly predicted locations and times. The primary predictive activity, how- ever, was to determine the time of the New Moon phase to set their calendar. The priests used the predictions of eclipses and New Moons to create astrological reports for the kingdom. In Babylon, astrological table often mention the five major planets. For example, a Babylonian priest might predict: "On the twenty-fifth day, there will be a lunar eclipse; the Syrian kingdom will face grave danger; and Venus will not be seen." While Babylonian and Chaldean astronomers were more advanced than scholars in other contemporary cultures, they did lack knowledge of geometry and trigonometry. This kept them behind the Greeks in their astronomical studies. As we have seen, though, they contributed much to the study of astronomy which has survived into the present era. References - Abetti, Giorgio, THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY, Abelard-Schuman, New York, 1952 Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia, INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963 "Mesopotamia", ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, Micropedia Volume 8, Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago, Illinois, 1987 About the Author - Stacey Abrams was a senior at Avondale High School in Georgia when she authored this article. Stacey is now attending either Vassar College or Spelman College [I was unable to learn which. - The Editor], where she is majoring in Business Economics, Theater Arts, and Education. THE ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE ATLANTIC September 1991 - Vol. 3, No. 2 Copyright (c) 1991 - ASA