
			Introduction - BACKGAMMON 5.1
			-----------------------------

Backgammon is a program written entirely in 80X86 assembly language to
run on IBM compatible computers.   Using pattern recognition techniques
developed to guide 'smart' weapons similar to those use in the recent
Gulf War, Backgammon plays the game entirely without rules other than
those specific to the play of the game.  That is, it has no rules of 
thumb for deciding which of the many possible moves it will make at
each turn.  Rather, it examines each of the possible outcomes (there are
usually fewer than 40 except in rare cases such as double ones) and 
uses a complex evaluation algorithm to assign a value to each of them and
then takes the move with the highest value.  Actually, to make its play
more interesting, there is also a 'random factor' used which keeps it from
playing too predictably, but this factor gets smaller and smaller as you
choose to play at higher and higher skill levels.

Similarly, its doubling (gambling) behavior is guided entirely by pattern
recognition routines rather than explicit rules.  All in all, BACKGAMMON
examines about forty variables when making its decisions.  These are
further refined by two parameters, the stage of the game (i.e. how far into
the game are we) and the relative standing of the opponents (i.e. who's
ahead).  The variables are things like the bunching of the pieces, the
size of blockades, the evenness of piece distribution, etc.

At lower levels, BACKGAMMON tends to play conservatively, trying to minimize
the number of runners and keep its pieces together.  At higher levels, it
plays much more aggressively, trying to get an early advantage and quickly
double the stakes.  It also hangs on tenaciously to 'lost' games and will
often surprise you with a roaring comeback.  You may decide that the levels
do not represent skill levels as much as different philosophies of play and,
as such, it is just as rewarding to play BACKGAMMON at level zero as at level
nine.  Try starting at the lower levels and moving upward.  After a while, you
may find yourself switching levels randomly to get a different type of game
on different days.

BACKGAMMON was developed in an unusual fashion.  The earliest experimental
versions 'learned' to play by playing against themselves!  After the mechanics
of following the rules of the game were programmed in, the two sides were each
programmed with a slightly different algorithms and set to playing (without
human intervention) against one another for thousands of games or matches.
It was then possible to decide, with great statistical precision, which of the
two algorithms were superior.

In this manner, the program was gradually improved, based upon suggestions
from human testers and theoretical ideas gleaned from books on the subject.
Periodically, it was necessary to pit BACKGAMMON against a group of human 
testers.  If the automatic procedure was used too long without this kind of
a reality check, it seemed that the machine play would begin to diverge into
strange and unpredictable behavior that wasn't necessarily good play, but
merely 'better' play than its mechanical opponent's algorithm.  Sort of a
machine La-La land.

The result is the program you have in hand.  If you find it an enjoyable and
challenging backgammon opponent, please consider paying the registration fee.
This modest sum of money (by computer program standards) will get you phone
support, periodic updates and enhancements, the knowledge that you are
contributing to the advancement of computer game playing and the satisfaction
of rewarding a job well done!  Work in progress includes a higher resolution
product for EGA and VGA monitors.  On the other hand if you can't afford it,
please have a ball on me!


		The Mechanics of Loading and Exiting
		------------------------------------

The very first thing you should remember about this game is how to exit. 
This is done in the rather unusual manner of holding down both shift keys
and the <Ctrl> and <Alt> keys simultaneously.  It requires both hands to do 
this which keeps you from accidentally exiting in the middle of a game.  It is
suggested that you hold down three of these four keys and then hit the fourth,
since it is difficult to hit them all simultaneously.

BACKGAMMON loads just like any other DOS EXE file.  If you are loading it
from a prompt, simply enter BG1991.EXE while you are in the subdirectory
in which it resides, or at any time if you have placed the location of BG1991
into your system PATH.

Upon loading, the game will display a copyright screen for a few seconds, then
ask for your name.  This name will be used in the score display and defaults
to 'Human' if you simply hit <Enter>.

The next thing you will see is the BACKGAMMON game board with the doubling
cube centered either on the left or on the right and the pieces in their
holders.  The computer will randomly assign, for each game, either black or
white pieces to you, and either a left or right orientation to the board.
This simulates real world conditions wherein you might be sitting on one side
of the board or the other and be assigned one or the other color.  The message
at the bottom of the screen (where all playing messages expecting input will
be given) is "RESET?".  What occurs next depends upon what you answer to this
question, which will be described after the next section.  If you already know
the rules, you can skip this section and go right to the section on playing
the game.  If you do not know the rules or are a little rusty, read them
carefully.  Some of them are a little tricky.


			The Rules of Backgammon
			-----------------------

Although Backgammon was invented in the Middle East many centuries ago, the
contemporary game, as played in the West, differs slightly from the Middle
Eastern version.  This program uses the western rules, including those for
matches (with the Crawford rule, named after famous gamer Johnny Crawford).

At the beginning of a game, each player casts a single die.  In BACKGAMMON,
all dice throws are cast by the computer.  Actually, you determine what is
cast by when you hit the "SHAKE" button.  While it is waiting, the computer
will be randomizing the dice, settling on their final values at the exact
instant that you press the button (space bar).  So, if you feel you have some
psychic influence on the dice, this gives you a way to maintain it even though
the computer must handle the actual display and randomization.  As stated
above, there is absolutely no connection between the values thrown on the
dice and the state of the current game.  The resulting dice throws are as
nearly perfectly random as can be achieved with a computer.

So, after the initial dice cast, the player with the higher die, gets the 
first move and must play both dice.  If the die are tied, they must be recast
until they are not.  Thereafter, each player's turn consists of casting both
dice.  If the values on the dice are not doubles (both dice the same), the
player on move gets to move the exact number of spots shown on each die. 
Thus, if the throw was a five and a four, the player on move must move his or
hers or its pieces, one of them five spaces and a second (which may be the
same as the first) four spaces.  The two moves can be made in either order, as
long as they both are taken.  One player moves his or hers or its pieces
clockwise, while the other moves counterclockwise.  The pieces may be moved to
any point (triangle) where the opponent does not have two or more pieces
already established.  If the opponent has but a single piece on a point, that
piece is "hit" and must go back to the beginning, which, in backgammon, is on
the "bar" or the center of the board.  The only exceptions occur when doubles
have been cast, in which case FOUR moves are taken with the common value on
the two dice or, when you can not legally move one or the other or both
your pieces.  This latter situation can be tricky because of a simple rule.

RULE:  At any given move, you MUST move as many dice spots as you can.

SUBRULE:  If you can move one or another of the dice, but not both, you 
must move the higher number of spots.

This seems really easy, but can get complicated under some circumstances.
For instance, suppose you have cast a one and a two.  Suppose further that
you have a "good" move with the two spot, but if you take it, you will be
unable to move the one spot.  If there is another move, however detrimental
to your cause, which allows you to take both moves, you MUST make it.
Remembering this rule will keep you from thinking the computer is cheating
when it "forces" you to take a bad move (by not continuing after you have
taken your "better" but illegal move).  In all cases, the computer will
sense when you have completed a legal move and will ask you to verify
that this was your intention before going on.  This corresponds to a second
backgammon rule. 

RULE:  A player's move is not over until he, she or it picks up the dice.

Counting moves is also easy.  If you have a piece on the two point and have
cast a five, you may move that piece to the seven point, as long as your
opponent does not have two or more pieces already on that point.

RULE:  A point may be occupied by pieces of but a single color.

If you are "hit" by your opponent moving a piece to a point upon which you
had but a single piece, that piece is moved to the bar and you must move it
back on the playing field before any subsequent pieces are moved.

RULE:  A piece on the bar must be returned to the playing field before
any other piece is moved.

Counting points from the bar requires you to think of the bar as point
number zero.  A one spot will move you to the one point.  A two to the
two point, etc.  As in any other case, if your opponent has two or more
pieces on the target point, you can not move there.

There are twenty four points on the board.  The bar constitutes an extra
"zeroth" point, while the 25th point can be thought of as the piece holder.
The player wins who gets all 12 of its pieces onto the 25th point before the
other.  This is called bearing off.  When all pieces are within the fourth
quadrant of the board (points 19 through 24), and you get a die with exactly
the correct number of points to move (counting off-the-board as point number
twenty five), you can bear it off to its home piece holder.  An exception 
occurs when all your pieces lie at a distance which is less than the smallest
die cast.  In that case, and only then, you can bear off your pieces, furthest
from home first, to their home piece holder.  Trying to move a piece home
home from point number 20 with a 6 throw is illegal if you still have pieces
on point number 19, for example.  Again, the computer will not allow you to
make illegal moves in this situation.  Note that it may occur that you begin
bearing off and are then hit and have a piece on the bar.  That piece must
return to the fourth quadrant before bearing off can continue.

RULE:  Pieces may be borne of the board while all remaining pieces are
contained within the fourth quadrant, furthest away first, by any dice
throw that equals or exceeds the distance off the board.

You will notice that the pieces are distributed around the board at the
beginning of the game, rather than all at the beginning.  Counting points
from the home piece holder (which for you, as the human player, will be
either at the left or the right lower edge at the beginning of the game),
you will find that you have exactly two pieces on the one point, five pieces
on the twelve point, three pieces on the seventeen point and the last five
on the nineteen point.  The computer's pieces will be distributed exactly
the same way if you count points from its piece holder, but remember, it
is going in the opposite direction.  The simple way to determine which pieces
are yours and which way you will be moving is that you are the color with
two pieces on the bottom of the board and you are moving in the direction
away from those two pieces toward the first five pieces of the computer.

There are two very special results to a single game.  If one player bears
off all of her/his/its pieces before the other has a single piece in the
fourth quadrant, the winner earns double the current displayed stakes.  This
is true whether or not the doubling cube is in use.  This outcome is called
a "gammon" or "gammoning one's opponent".

If one player bears of all pieces before the other has escaped from the
winner's fourth quadrant, the stakes are tripled!  This is called a
"backgammon" or "backgammoning one's opponent".

To summarize:

        1)  The first move is taken by the player who has the highest die
            after the first cast.  Ties require a recast.
        2)  One player moves clockwise the other counterclockwise.
        3)  The player on move moves the number of spots showing on each
            die unless doubles are cast.  Then four moves are made.
        4)  A player on the bar must reenter that piece before any other
            piece can be moved.
        5)  Pieces are borne off after all pieces are in the fourth quadrant.
            Pieces are borne off furthest from home first.
        6)  A gammon scores double and a backgammon scores triple.

An additional element is introduced when you choose to use the doubling cube.
This cube looks like a die, but it contains the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and
64.  Initially it shows 64 (which, in this case, substitutes for the number 
one).  It represents the multiple of the stakes (initially one) for which the
game is being played.  That is, were you to be gambling for $1 a point, this 
cube represents the current stakes, which may rise after the game is in
progress.  Backgammon, unlike almost any other wagering game, requires that
every subsequent bet double the stakes (and thus the name "doubling cube").
This produces some very strange probabilities that will be explained later.

At first, either player may double the stakes on her or his or its move (after
the very first).  The double must be offered before the dice are cast.  I can
be accepted by the other player, in which case the game continues with the
doubling cube in possession (i.e. on the side of the board) of the player who
has just accepted the double.  If the double is refused, the game is over and
the player who has doubled wins the current multiple of the stakes showing on
the doubling cube (remember, initially, 64 = 1). 

The player who "owns" the cube, that is, the one who has accepted the last
double, is the only one who can double next.  This prevents the stakes from
growing too rapidly, since the one who is presumedly behind owns the cube
at any given time.  Initially, neither player owns the cube, so either may
make the first double.  Each time the stakes are doubled, the value showing
on the cube is doubled.  In the unlikely event that the stakes exceed 64 at
any time, the cube is cycled back to 2 (which now represents 128) and both
players are responsible for remembering the actual value of the stakes.  Of
course, the computer will not forget this!

To summarize:

        1)  The doubling cube, if used, represents at any given time, the
            stakes at which the game is being played.
        2)  Every bet offered and accepted doubles the current stakes.
        3)  Initially, neither side owns the cube.  After each accepted double
            ownership passes to that player who has accepted the double.  Only
            the player owning the cube (after the first double) can 
            subsequently double again.
        4)  When the game is over, either by one player bearing all his/her/its
            pieces off the board or one player failing to accept a double, the
            winning side scores the number of points currently displayed on
            the cube (remember, sixty four equals one initially).

Finally, yet another twist is entered when you play a match.  A match is a
contest consisting of one or more games, with the total number of points
being the running totals of points scored by game winners and the match winner
being determined by the first player to exceed the match limit (preset at the
beginning of the match).  BACKGAMMON will allow matches up to and including
99 points.  Traditionally, matches have an odd number of points limit, but
this is not required.

One further rule complicates matches.  If there is but a single point
remaining for one of the player to win, the very next game is played without
using the doubling cube.  That is, it is played for one point only.  This is
called the "Crawford game" after a famous gambler.   The reason for this
odd rule is that, when one player has only one point to go, there is no
reason whatsoever for the other player not to double at each and every
opportunity.  If that player loses, the match is over in any case, so he/she/it
might as well play for the highest possible stakes.  In fact, if the player
who is behind wins the Crawford game, that is exactly the betting strategy
that should be played thereafter by that player!  The Crawford rule gives the
player who is ahead one game to win before the stakes are at least two points
on every game.  You should remember this, for the computer surely will!

It is generally accepted in the world of backgammon, that a 25 point match (or
more) is the lower limit for matches that separate the grownups from the
children.  That is, the winner of such a match has won by skill rather than
luck.  My experience with this game, which represents hundreds of thousands
of contests, suggests that this conclusion is not really true.  Both people and
computers can enjoy strings of luck...streaks...both good and bad.  My 
experience suggests that these streaks can easily extend over the period of
a 25 point match.  In fact, it was with exactly 25 point matches that all our
statistics have been collected.  I won about 45% of my matches.  While this
suggests that the computer has consistently played better than I, the very
fact that I won as many matches as I did suggests that the "generally accepted"
notion of a match of definitive length (of 25) is incorrect.  I would suggest
that a limit of 99 is more nearly correct.  In any case, backgammon is at
heart, a game of chance.  Every player, no matter how bad, should be able to
win occasionally from anyone else, and most players should be able to win a
long match once in a while from anyone else.

To summarize:

        1)  A match is a series of games played to a preassigned fixed total
            number of points.  The first player to or over that limit wins.
        2)  Points per game are determined, as always, by the doubling cube
            except in the case that one player has only one point to go.  Then,
            for a single game, the match is played without a doubling cube.  If
            the player who is behind wins, the doubling cube is reintroduced 
            for the very next game.


			Playing Backgammon with BACKGAMMON
			----------------------------------

The first thing to note is that, after the copyright and name entry screens,
hitting <H> or <F1> will produce a help screen with abbreviated instructions.
One of the headers will be flashing to indicate that the command(s) listed
below it are pertinent to the current situation.  This does not mean that you
can not issue some other command, but the flashing group is the most likely
thing for which you need help.  While the help screen is present, if you
hit a letter (or <Ctrl> letter) key to get more detailed information about 
the use of that key.

The screen will contain the empty backgammon board after the copyright and
name entry screens have passed.  The message at the bottom of the screen will
be "RESET?" at that time.  If you answer <N>, for "No", the game will proceed
to load the board with pieces without further ado, accepting whatever the
current parameters are.  If you answer <Y>, you will be asked a series of
other short questions, the first of which is "LEVEL?".  To this query, hit
any number key corresponding to levels 0 through 9 (easiest through most
difficult.  As noted previously, these levels represent different styles of
play as much as different skill levels, although, in fact, while playing
against itself, the game wins more often (on average) at level 1 than at level
0, more often at level 2 than at level 1, etc.

next, you will be asked to choose the type of game.  Hit <1>, <2> or <3> for:

        1)  No betting (the doubling cube is not used)
        2)  Match play (doubling cube is used for a fixed number of points)
        3)  Standard (doubling cube is used, but score accumulates endlessly)

If you choose the second alternative, you will be asked to enter the number of
points to the match, 3 through 99.  After this choice, the game will commence
by the pieces being distributed around the board.  Notice that your pieces are
at the bottom of the board starting with the point upon which there are two
pieces.  Also, the color of the dice on the right side of the board (your
side) represents your color.

After the pieces have been placed, the message "Shake" will appear.  Hitting
the space bar will cause the computer to quit randomizing and display the dice
for this (or subsequent) cast of the dice.  In this sense, you are in complete
control of the shake of the dice.  The moment you decide to hit the space bar
determines when and what values occur at that dice cast.  You even get to do
this for the computer, since, whenever you "pick up" the dice (by answering
positively to the query "OK?" presented at the end of your turn), that is the
moment the computer stops randomizing and presents itself with a dice cast.
It can not be emphasized enough that the computer exerts no other influence
over the cast of the dice than randomizing the dice ("shaking" them) literally
thousands of times per second.  You have complete control over when this
process ends and what values eventually appear, both for yourself and for the
computer.  So, please, no comments about dice throw cheating!

After you shake the dice, the message "DIE #" followed by "1" or "2" (or in
the case of doubles, <3> or <4> as well).

To actually move your pieces you must enter the point number of the point
your piece is leaving (not its destination), playing the dice from left to
right.  The dice will always appear with the largest die at the left (the 
computer does this ordering which has no connection with the actual order in
which the dice were "cast" internally).  This is for your benefit and does NOT
constitute evidence of cheating!  If you do not wish to play the dice in this
order (or can not), hit the <X> key to reverse their order.

How do you remember the point numbers?  You do not have to.  If you hit the
pound sign, shift <3> or <#> at the top of the keyboard, numbers will appear
along side their respective points and will reappear each time it is your turn
thereafter until you hit the pound sign again.  You must enter leading zeroes
for the low numbered points.  That is, you must enter <0><1> to indicate a
move originating at the one point rather than simply <1>.

If you are really new to the game or want a hint, hit the <T> key (for "Take")
and the computer will move for you.  After the move has been taken by either 
you or the computer, the message "OK?" will appear.  If you answer <Y>, the
dice will be picked up, the computers dice will be cast and the computer will
take its move.  If you answer <N>, the pieces will be moved back and you can
retake the move (or, if you have asked for a hint, you can do what you want
to do instead).  You may also use <N> at any time during your move to cancel
any previous entries.  A special key, the <B> key, is used to enter pieces
from the bar.  Again, the dice are played left to right, although the 
computer will sense that only one of the dice is playable and reverse 
their order for you (just as though the <X> key had been hit).  The computer
will know if you have only one possible move (or only three out of four, etc.)
and will say "OK?" in that case after you have made the maximum total possible
moves.

After the computer's move has been made, you will again be asked to "SHAKE".
If you didn't see the computer's move, the <I> key will give you an instant
replay.

If you wish to double the stakes (and it is legal to do so), you hit the <D>
key before you shake your dice.  The computer will either accept, in which
case it will now own the doubling cube (it will move over to the other side
of the board), or it will quit, giving you the score for that game.

Should the computer double you, you must answer <A> to accept, or <R> to 
reject.  You will be given no second chance, so be careful!

At the end of the game, no matter who wins, you will be asked whether or not
you wish to save it.  <Y> will start up the save dialogue (asking for a name)
while any other key will cause the machine to proceed back to "RESET?" where
each game begins.  If you answer <Y> and are in a match, you will be asked
whether you really want to terminate the match.  This will keep you from
accidentally ending a hot match!  Any other key will just cause the program
to proceed into the next game in whichever mode ("no betting", etc.) you are
currently using.

The <Q> key will allow you to quit at any time, but you will be asked to
confirm this (again, to prevent accidental termination).  


			Special Features
			----------------

<Ctrl A>  Hitting this key (actually, holding down <Ctrl> and hitting <A>)
          will make the computer go into automatic mode, playing game after
          game, both sides.  This is good if you merely want to watch how
          the computer plays.  Hitting <Ctrl A> again will turn this feature
          back off.

<Ctrl B>  This key combination will turn the "blink" feature on or off
          depending on its current state.

<Ctrl D>  This key allows you to switch back and forth between internal and
          external dice casting.  If you are so paranoid about the computer
          cheating that you wish to throw real dice, this one is for you.
          It is also useful if you wish to play this program against some
          other.  In that case, you will need to enter the other machine's
          dice throws externally.  (Don't worry, BACKGAMMON will usually win!)

<Ctrl G>  Returns the board to the state it was in before your last previous
          dice cast.  This one is good for the case that you accidentally 
          entered the last move and confirmed "OK?" accidentally or you just
          want to cheat.

<Ctrl J>  Jumps back to the beginning of the game and starts a replay.  The
          entire game is replayed up to the point you hit <Ctrl J>.

<Ctrl L>  Allows you to change the skill level any time you want.

<Ctrl P>  For "Playout".  This command is exactly like <Ctrl A> except that
          it continues just to the end of the current game.  It is useful
          for playing out games where the outcome is certain.  Be careful,
          however, how you interpret "certain".  One thing that can happen
          that you might not have anticipated is that the computer may take
          a double for you that you would not have taken (for example, you
          might have preferred to play for a gammon).

<Ctrl R>  This is used to toggle a replay on or off.  This can be used to 
          replay either retracted (by <Ctrl G>) or stored moves (on disk)
          or to interrupt a replay in progress (say, for a <Ctrl J>).

<Ctrl S>  This one allows you to set up a special board position.  It is
          explained in detail below.

<Ctrl V>  Allows you to view the current overall score and playing level.

<Ctrl W>  Allows you to save or retrieve games from disk.  This is explained
          detail below.


				Key Summary
				-----------

<Space>   Used to "SHAKE" and in the setup mode (Ctrl S>).

<Esc>     Used to return from the help screens or to escape from disk
          read/write functions.

<#>       Shift <3>, used to display point numbers.

<A>       Used to accept a double.

<B>       Used to reenter from the bar.

<C>       Use during setup (<Ctrl S>) to mean "Computer".

<D>       Used to double the computer.

<E>       Exchange sides.  This one flips the board and asks you if you really
          mean to do this.  Allows you to switch roles with the computer.

<H>       Help.  <F1> key also works.

<I>       Instant playback.

<N>       Used to indicate "No".

<P>       Used during setup (<Ctrl S>) to indicate "Player".

<Q>       Quits.

<R>       Resign or reject a double made by the computer.

<T>       Tells the computer to take your move for you.

<X>       Reverse dice order on the screen.

<Y>       Indicates "Yes".


			Setup a Position
			----------------

After hitting <Ctrl S> and the board has cleared, use the '<' and '>' keys
to move the cursor around the screen.  Note that the cursor will visit all
points, including the bar at BOTH ends of the screen.

To insert pieces on an empty point, cursor to that point and then hit <C>
or <P> plus a digit from 1 to 9 to indicate whose pieces and how many to
place on that point.

To delete pieces on a point, cursor to that point and the press the <Del>
key.  These pieces will return to their holder.

The computer will not allow you to make illegal placements (such as putting
the computer's pieces on the player's bar).

Once you have completed your setup, hit <Enter>.  You will be asked "OK?" and
if you sanction it by hitting <Y>, the final question is which side to move
first.  Hit <C> for computer and <P> for player (you).

If you have trouble deciding which color belongs to whom, remember that yours
are in the piece holder at the bottom of the screen.  Also, your home quadrant
(the computer's bearing off quadrant) is always numbered 1 to 6.

Note that if you enter setup during a game, you will lose that game and can
only save or replay moves from the point of the setup.


			Saving/Restoring Games
			----------------------

At the end of each game, you are asked if you wish to save it.  Only the <Y>
key will start the saving process.  Any other key will proceed.  if you do
answer <Y>, the board will clear away and you will be presented with a menu.
You can also hit <Ctrl W> at any time to get to this menu.

You can save or restore any fragment of any game in this fashion.  You must
give each saved fragment a name, after which it will be written to disk.  The
number of games you can save is limited only by disk space.

From the Read/Save menu you can also load previously saved games or fragments
of a game and replay them.  You can also delete games from the disk this way,
or simply view a glossary of stored games.

         ----------------end-of-author's-documentation---------------

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         files in this set may no longer be the current versions. Also,
         if you got this disk from another vendor and are having prob-
         lems,  be aware that  some files may have become corrupted or
         lost by that vendor. Get a current, working disk from PsL.

         For a copy of the latest monthly software library newsletter
         and a list of the 3,000+ disks in the library, call or write

                           Public (software) Library
                               P.O.Box 35705 - F
                            Houston, TX 77235-5705

                                 Orders only:
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                              MC/Visa/AmEx/Discover

                          Outside of U.S. or in Texas
                          or for general information,
                              Call 1-713-524-6394

                          PsL also has an outstanding
                          catalog for the Macintosh.


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