                         7.  CONTROVERSY OVER ANDRAGOGY 
        
               Though Knowles and the other adult education theorists
        readily accept the principles presented earlier in this paper,
        there is controversy among scholars regarding andragogy and its
        wholesale acceptance as the guiding principles for adult
        education and ultimately, lifelong learning.
        
               Rachal (1983) contended that the terms "andragogy" and
        "pedagogy" and their use in adult education suggested that since
        "andragogy" has never been adequately defined and was virtually
        unknown outside the field of adult education, the terms
        "self-directed" and "teacher-directed" need to be substituted to
        clarify the current situation that exists in educational systems.
        The author expressed a need for more research and greater input
        from a more diverse group of theorists including business and
        labor to more fully define the practices of adult education.
        
               Confusion and concern about the use of the term
        "andragogy" generated the question, "Is there a generic set of
        principles that guide lifelong learning?"  Trott (1988) proposed
        an entirely new frame of reference and created the term
        "anthrogogy" (anthro = human) as a way out of the confusion.  He
        identified five assumptions that constitute anthrogogy and
        illustrated their relationship with pedagogical and andragogical
        assumptions, and developed five principles modeled after Knowles'
        (1975) "Learning Resource A".  These principles were: (1) the
        anthrogogical concept of learning is identified as being
        lifelong; (2) the learner is conceived as being interdependent;
        (3) the learner's experiences are connected and stretched with
        new knowledge, experiences, and critical thinking; (4) motivation
        for learning is survival; and (5) the anthrogogical orientation
        to learning is holistic.  He cited "Gogymania" (Courtenay and
        Stevenson, 1983) as a resounding call to turn the pedagogy vs.
        andragogy debate away from theory building and return to
        building sound teaching practices.  
        
               Freire (1970) suggested specific approaches for grounding
        theories into practice.  He developed a symbol to represent
        anthrogogy and the dimensions of a humanistic systems teaching
        model.  The model's seven dimensions were: (1) the student, (2)
        learning groups, (3) systems thinking, (4) vision, (5)
        direction and pathways, (6) evaluation, and (7) the teacher.   
        
               There was growing support, Thompson (1989) contended, for
        the view that the andragogical instructional approach was a
        necessary but not sufficient model for adult educators to
        utilize.  It was effectively complemented by the pedagogical
        instructional model.  The author proposed a complementary view
        of andragogy and pedagogy emphasizing the most important
        principles of each theory.
        
               The issue of relationships was considered important
        personally and organizationally.  Individuals find themselves,
        discover who they are, existentially and psychologically
        speaking, in the living of their relationships.  The question is
        then what adult education experience is available--solid in
        theory and in practice--to teach the art and science of the "90
        percent factor"--90 percent because that proportion of the
        problems in organizations are relationship issues. 
        Psychoandragogy (from Jung) is one way to begin addressing and
        answering this question and the corresponding urgent learning
        need for exposure to and learning about one's inner world as the
        major connecting link to a valued human journey, Rock (1988)
        stated.  Adult educators, Rock wrote, should not ignore the
        reality, the influence, and the significance of "psyche" (soul)
        on "education" (learning).  He believed that adult educators need
        to be trained and qualified for this linkage of psyche and
        education, for psychoandragogy.  Three key dynamics of the human
        journey lend themselves well to psychoandragogy: re-evaluation of
        the feminine, listening and emotional education, and potential
        and shadow (Jung's name for the flip side of one's conscious
        self-image).  He proposed "Management by Insight" (MBI) as one
        way to develop personal and interpersonal awareness in managers. 
        
            
        
               Feuer and Geber (1988) reviewed the concept of andragogy
        and synthesized recent criticisms of this theory.  They concluded
        that, despite some weaknesses, andragogy is important in that it
        makes the teacher sensitive to the needs and interests of the
        learner.  But it is not enough to continue to promote the adult
        education movement forward in anticipation of the burgeoning
        information age and the 21st century.  They suggested continuing
        research was needed in order to clarify the issues affecting the
        adult education movement in the United States and all other Third
        Wave civilizations.
        
               After recapitulating certain problems with current
        conceptions of the profession of adult education and stating a
        design problem for the reinvention of the field, Callender (1989)
        argued that adult education can best be seen as "self-education."
        
        He described the term by defining it as the "individual pursuit
        of knowledge" and developed a model and supporting guides for
        conducting self-education.  He promoted the notion that the
        profession of adult education would be founded more soundly on
        this basis than upon its current assumptions of andragogy,
        pedagogy or a combination of both disciplines. 
        
               Diverging further from pure andragogical principles,
        Garvin (1986) contrasted and compared the theory and practice of
        adult education as it related to the issue of right brain/left
        brain learning.  He stressed the need for a whole-brain approach
        to teaching and suggested that adult educators, given their
        philosophical directions, are the perfect potential users of this
        type of integrated system.  
        
               Finally, Burstow (1984) argued for the construction of a
        philosophic foundation for adult education based upon the
        writings of Jean-Paul Sartre, who defined learning as a "leap
        into nothingness" and "facilitation as dialogical."  He proposed
        that adult education concepts would ultimately lead to
        self-directed learning, lifelong learning and learning projects,
        all of which were described earlier in this paper and supported
        by some of the theorists.   
        
               Debate into the nature of andragogy continues, but until
        more thorough research is completed, the principles and practices
        promoted by Knowles, Tough, Kidd, Houle and others will most
        likely be accepted by the practicing adult educator.  Tough's
        (1979) contention was that until researchers determined the
        primary reason why adults' learn, the adult educator/facilitator
        will continue to create and implement adult learning programs and
        projects without a complete understanding of what is needed and
        how to go about providing it for the adult learner.
