                      3.  THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT EDUCATION
        
               What motivates the adult to learn?   What other factors
        make the adult learner psychologically different from the child
        and that the adult educator must take into consideration when
        preparing to facilitate any adult learning program?   
        
               To answer some of these questions, Knowles cited Eduard C.
        Lindeman, whom he believed best described the psychology of the
        adult learner: 
             "Meaning must reside in the things for which people strive,
             the goals which they set for themselves, their wants, their
             needs, desires, and wishes...viewed from the standpoint of
             adult education, such personalities seem to want among other
             things, intelligence, power, self-expression, freedom,
             creativity, appreciation, enjoyment, fellowship.  Or stated
             in terms of the Greek ideal, they are searching    for the
             "good life."  They want to count for something; they want
             their experiences to be vivid and meaningful; they want
             their talents to be utilized; they want to know beauty and
             joy; and they want all these realizations of their total
             personalities to be shared in communities of fellowship. 
             Briefly, they want to improve themselves; this is their
             realistic and primary aim.  But they want also to change the
             social order so that vital personalities will be creating a
             new environment in which their aspirations may be properly
             expressed" (Lindeman, 1961, pp.  13-14).   
        
               Lindeman's description was not that of a child struggling
        toward achieving maturity, as in Overstreet's system, or an
        amorphous individual searching for self-integration in Erikson's,
        but a mature individual seeking to maximize h/er human potential.
        
        Knowles contrasted the two psychologist's perspectives with
        Lindeman's to lay the foundation for understanding the
        psychology of the adult learner.  
        
               Every society used adult education processes to continue
        the development of the kind of citizens visualized to be required
        for the maintenance and progress of the society.  But if
        Toffler's prediction of the imminent arrival of the Third Wave or
        information age are accepted, then the new citizen will need to
        learn some new developmental tasks.  Knowles, like Toffler,
        Naisbitt and Aburdene, Hesburgh, and the other social analysts
        and educators, believed the following learning activities needed
        to be undertaken in order to adapt to this new age:
               1.      Learn how to change.
               2.      Learn how to deal with complexity.
               3.      Learn how to perform tasks using machinery.
               4.      Become liberated from traditional prejudices and
                       establish open, empathic, collaborative
                       relationships with other human beings (p.  32).
        
               Kidd (1973), supported Knowles' position by describing
        what he believed were shifts in tasks or roles that a person
        performs as he matures.  The developmental changes of an adult
        are many.  For example:
               1.     Becoming independent.
               2.     Seeking and maintaining forms of livelihood.
               3.     Selecting a mate.
               4.     Learning to live with a mate.
               5.     Becoming a functioning parent.
               6.     Interacting with the community and society.
               7.     Enlarging responsibilities as a citizen.
               8.     Accepting changes in relationships - of parents or  
                     children.
               9.     Preparing for retirement.
               10.    Finding satisfaction in old age.
               11.    Preparing for death (p.16).
        
               Somers (1988) concurred with Knowles and Kidd by proposing
        four key assumptions about adult learners that distinguish them
        from children.  Like Knowles, Somers believed that the role of
        the learner in pedagogy is one of dependency.  In andragogy, the
        deep psychological needs of the adult are defined and adults are
        viewed as (1) self-directing, (2) maturing toward independence,
        (3) possessing significant experiential knowledge which makes
        group teaching experience effective, and (4) ready to learn.  He
        advocated that adult educators consider these characteristics in
        preparing learning experiences for adults.
        
               Karmos (1989) supported Somer's assumptions and called for
        empowering adult education based on the principles that adults
        (1) can learn a lot, (2) demand solid content, (3) want to learn
        something new, and (4) guard their self-esteem.   
        
               Given the writings of the analysts cited thus far, a
        strong case can be made for the proposition that the greatest
        danger facing modern civilization was not atomic warfare, nor
        environmental pollution, nor population explosion, nor the
        depletion of natural resources, but the underlying causes of them
        all--the accelerating obsolescence of man.  The evidence is
        mounting that man's ability to cope with his changing world is
        lagging farther and farther behind the changing world.  Knowles
        (1970) believed, "The only hope now seems to be a crash program
        to retool the present generation of adults with competencies
        required to function adequately in this condition of perpetual
        change.  This is the deep need and the awesome challenge facing
        the adult educator as he prepares the adult student to face
        modern society" (p.33).
        
               As the mission of the adult educator became more complex
        and significant, the character of his role changed and the
        demands on him to prepare more carefully for performing h/er role
        increased proportionately.  For years, it was assumed the
        principles of pedagogy could be applied to adult learning. 
        Research indicated this was not true.  Adults were different from
        children.  Knowles (1950) stated, "good adult educators don't
        just happen; they become good by learning these principles and
        techniques."  As a result, the role of the adult educator moved
        gradually away from the amateur toward that of trained
        specialist.  Where once the adult educator was seen as "one who
        educates adults,"  he now was becoming a "change agent"
        performing a "helping role."  His part in this process was that
        of helper, guide, encourager, consultant, and resource--not that
        of transmitter, disciplinarian, judge and authority.  He was
        ultimately, Knowles decided, the "facilitator" of learning.
        
               Knowles (1978) concluded that even though adult education
        was a concern of the human race for a long time, little thinking,
        investigating and writing about it had occurred.  Though the
        Chinese, Hebrew, Greek and Roman teachers taught adults, there
        was little in their writing about the psychology of adult
        learning.  They described the ends of adult learning but
        not much about the means.  Up until the Twentieth Century, there
        was only one framework for all of education, for children and
        adults alike--pedagogy.  In spite of the fact that pedagogy
        literally means "the art and science of teaching children" (p. 
        27).
        
               Two streams of inquiry launched the beginning of the
        inquiry into the psychology of adult education in America.  The
        scientific stream, which sought to discover new knowledge through
        rigorous experimental investigation, was launched by Edward L. 
        Thorndike with the publication of his Adult Learning in 1928 and
        his Adult Interests in 1935, and Herbert Sorenson's Adult
        Abilities in 1938.  The artistic mainstream sought to discover
        new knowledge through intuition and the analysis of experience
        that was concerned with "how" adults learn was launched with the
        publication of Eduard C.  Lindeman's The Meaning of Adult
        Education in 1926.  Lindeman laid the foundation for a systematic
        theory about adult learning with statements like: 
             "...the approach to adult education will be via the route of
             situations, not subjects.  Our academic system has grown in
             reverse order: subjects and teachers constitute the
             starting-point, students are secondary.  In conventional
             education the student is required to adjust himself to an
             established curriculum; in adult education the curriculum is
             built around the student's needs and interests.  Every adult
             person finds himself in specific situations with respect to
             his work, his recreation, his family-life, his
             community-life, etc.-situations which call for adjustments. 
             Adult education begins at this point.  Subject matter is
             brought into the situation, is put to work, when needed. 
             Text and teachers play a new and secondary role in this type
             of education; they must give way to the primary importance
             of the learners (pp.  8-9).  The resource of highest value
             in adult education is the learner's experience. If education
             is life, then life is also education.  Too much of learning
             consists of vicarious substitution of someone else's
             experience and knowledge.  Psychology has taught us,
             however, that we learn what we do, and that therefore, all
             genuine education will keep doing and thinking
             together...Experience is the adult learner's living textbook
             (pp.  9-10).  Adult education presents a challenge to static
             concepts of intelligence, to the standardized limitations of
             conventional education and to the theory which restricts
             educational facilities to an intellectual class (pp. 
             27-28)...  In short, my conception of adult education is
             this: a cooperative venture in non-authoritarian, informal
             learning, the chief purpose of which is to discover the
             meaning of experience (Gessner, 1956, p.  160).
        
               Knowles summarized Lindeman's work by proposing several
        key assumptions about adult learners that added to the foundation
        stones of the psychology of modern adult learning theory:
               1.     Adults are motivated to learn as they experience   
        
                      needs and interests that learning will satisfy;    
        
                      therefore, these are the
                      appropriate starting points for organizing adult   
        
                      learning activities.
               2.      Adults' orientation to learning is life-centered;
                       therefore, the appropriate units for organizing
                       adult learning are life situations, not subjects.
               3.      Experience is the richest resource for adults'
                       learning; therefore, the core methodology of adult
                       education is the analysis of experience.
               4.      Adults have a deep need to be self-directing;
                       therefore, the role of the teacher is to engage in
                       a process of mutual inquiry with them rather than
                       to transmit his or her knowledge to them and then
                       evaluate their conformity to it. 
               5.      Individual differences among people increase with
                       age; therefore, adult education must take optimal
                       provision for differences in style, time, place,
                       and pace of learning. 
        
               Lindeman did not differentiate between adult and youth
        education, but rather adult and "conventional" education implying
        that children might learn better when their needs and interests,
        life situations, experience, self-concepts, and individual
        differences were taken into account in creating learning
        experiences (Knowles, 1978, p.  31).  Knowles fully supported
        this position.
        
               In reviewing the existing research about how adults learn,
        Kidd (1973) found two facts: first, the practical limit of one's
        maximum ability or potential capacity to learn; and second, the
        psychological limit which each man places upon himself. 
        Unfortunately, the barriers that most restrict and hobble adults
        were those which adults fashion for themselves.  Many myths and
        fables, religious literature and secular admonitions, learned
        histories and old wive's tales are full of references to the
        human inadequacy to learn.  The task of adult educator is to
        replace these myths with facts.  Kidd described the myths and
        facts as follow:
        
        Myth 1.      You can't change human nature.  
        Fact 1.      The truth is that human behavior is changed          
                    every day, and human nature and human                 
                    personality can be profoundly reshaped.
        
        Myth 2.      You can't teach an old dog new tricks.
        Fact 2.      The evidence suggests that the capacity for          
                     adults to learn new information is virtually         
                     unlimited and only controlled by the                 
                     motivation of the individual to pursue
                     new learning projects.
        
        Myth 3.      The "hole in the head" theory of learning.           
                     Childrens' minds are easier to penetrate than adults 
                     whose attics are stuffed with information already.
        Fact 3.      Adults are ready and willing to learn                
                     anything and at anytime when the need arises         
                     for them to solve new problems facing them in        
                     their lives.  Secondly, they approach the            
                     learning process often with more
                     enthusiasm and less resistance than children, do not 
                     need to be disciplined and often are self-motivated  
                     enough to pursue learning with little or no guidance 
                     from a formal instructor.
        
        Myth 4.      The all-head notion of learning.  Learning is        
                     completely an affair of the mind.  It is an entirely 
                     rational, intellectual process.  
        Fact 4.      Humans are much more than intellect.  They are
                     emotions and feelings and connected intimately with  
                     a physical body capable of learning profound new     
                     behaviors.
        
        Myth 5.      The "bitter-sweet" notions.  Learning is either all
                     drudgery or supposed to be all "fun and games."
        Fact 5.      Learning is neither all drudgery nor fun and games.  
                     It is a pleasant mixture of both, sometimes          
                     difficult and at the same time, exciting, often      
                     exhilarating.
        
        Myth 6.      The mental age of the average adult is twelve years.
        Fact 6.      The adult is not just a large child; the cells of    
                    his body are different, his experiences are vastly    
                    different, and data derived from research indicate    
                    that the adult's capacity to learn and grow long      
                    into old age decreases very little.
        
        Myth 7.      Unless you have a high IQ, all hope abandon.
        Fact 7.      There is a great part of human life, human           
                     achievement, and human dignity that is not at all    
                     comprehended by even the best intellectual           
                     standards.  There are other kinds of worthiness to   
                     be sought after and nourished.  Concentrating all    
                     attention on what is measured by rather imperfect    
                     instruments is to omit much of what is richest
                     in life (p.  60).
        
               Up until the 1950's, Knowles (1970) wrote, most of what
        was known about learning was derived from studies of learning in
        children and animals, and the predominant teaching methodologies
        were developed from experiences educating children under
        conditions of compulsory education.  These theories about the
        learning-teaching transaction were based on the definition of
        education as a process for transmitting the culture.  From these
        theories, Knowles believed the technology of "pedagogy" emerged. 
        This was a term taken from the Greek stem, "paid" (meaning
        "child") and "agogas" (meaning "leading").  Knowles' own working
        definition of pedagogy was the art and science of teaching
        children.  Somewhere in history, he hypothesized that the
        "children" part of the definition got misplaced.  All education
        evolved to mean "pedagogy," the art and science of teaching.  In
        many books on adult education, writers often referred to the
        "pedagogy of adult education" not upset about the contradiction
        in terms.  Knowles maintained this was the basic reason adult
        education did not impact western civilization to any great extent
        for many years.  He observed that teachers of adults only knew
        how to teach them as if they were children and not mature,
        self-assured adult learners (p.  37). 
        
               Another problem with pedagogy that Knowles (1970)
        described was the archaic notion of the purpose of education;
        namely, the transmittal of knowledge.  This notion was repeatedly
        challenged by all the current social analysts, educators and
        futurists.  Consider the following graphic representing the
        relationship between the time-span of social change to the
        individual life span.
        
               Earlier, Toffler (1980) described how exponential change
        was going to continue to affect humans approaching the 21st
        Century.  Third Wave civilizations would experience major social
        change perhaps every five years.  It was not feasible to define
        education as a process of merely transmitting knowledge, but as a
        lifelong process of discovering what is not known and then making
        successful applications in daily life to solve the new and unique
        problems presenting themselves to the individual.
        
               What children should learn, Knowles (1970) wrote, is not
        what adults think they ought to know.  They want to learn how to
        inquire effectively so they can continue to grow and develop all
        through their lives.  In fact, traditional pedagogy, from his
        point of view, was irrelevant to the modern requirements for the
        education of both children and adults (p.  38).  Knowles noted
        that skilled adult educators had known for a long time they
        could not teach adults as children were traditionally taught. 
        Adults learn differently.  They were voluntary learners, and
        avoided learning experiences that did not meet their needs.  What
        adult educators did not have was a coherent theory of education
        based upon sound principles of a psychology of adult education to
        justify their efforts (p.  38).
        
               Tough (1979) believed that the importance to society of
        adult learning efforts can best be grasped by imagining what
        would happen to our society if all learning projects ceased. 
        "What would happen to industrial firms, business corporations,
        and government departments if the executives made all decisions
        as soon as they were told of a problem without bothering to learn
        anything more about it?   Suppose new employees, or those
        recently promoted, did not bother trying to learn how to handle
        their new responsibilities?   What would happen to our health if
        all medical personnel refused to make any effort to keep up with
        new drugs, and procedures in medicine?   What would happen to our
        children if no parents read about child care, if no one went to
        counselors and lawyers for help?   What if no leader or citizen
        tried to learn about history, philosophy, religion, evolution,
        alternative futures, social problems, recreational activities, or
        the arts?   It is clear that adult learning and change are
        important to society and to the individual" (p.  32).
        
               Adult Education theorists in Europe and America
        concurrently were developing a distinctive psychology of adult
        learning.  Evolving from their work was a new technology for the
        education of adults called "andragogy", based on the Greek word
        "aner" (with the stem andr-) meaning "man."   
        
               According to Susan Savivec (1968), Andragogy is the art
        and science of helping adults learn (p.69).  Using her
        definition, Knowles (1970) launched the development of a
        comprehensive psychology of adult education which would support
        adult learning, and ultimately, lifelong learning (LLL).
        
               Knowles (1970) cited a number of studies in several
        Western countries which indicated that some anticipated use or
        application of the knowledge and skill was the strongest
        motivation for the majority of learning projects undertaken by
        adults.  Most learning projects were motivated by some fairly
        immediate problem, task, or decision that demands certain
        knowledge and skill on the part of the adult learner.  In
        relatively few learning projects was the person interested in
        mastering an entire body of subject matter (p.  23).  
        
               Tough's (1979) research supported the conclusion that
        adult learning was generally practical in nature.  In the United
        Kingdom, Robinson (1965) noted that most adult learning arose
        from the personal, practical needs of everyday life, not from
        some intellectual curiosity about an academic body of knowledge. 
        In France, a survey conducted by Dumazedier (1967) also found
        an emphasis on practical or technical knowledge: "The preferred
        topics are connected to utilitarian preoccupations, answering a
        need for information about matters affecting daily life."  In
        Canada, a study of 35 learning projects found that the desire to
        use or apply the knowledge and skill was the strongest motivation
        in 71% of the projects and was present in every other project
        (Tough, 1979).  In many learning projects, this reason was even
        stronger for continuing than beginning.  Apparently, some
        learners as they proceed with a project discover some unexpected
        uses for their knowledge and skill.  In another Canadian study,
        Knoepfli (1971) interviewed 21 women who were responsible for
        forming 21 autonomous learning groups, and found each of the
        women, to at least some extent, was motivated by this reason--to
        apply what they learned to their lives.  The 21 women mentioned a
        total of 66 specific applications of their newly acquired
        knowledge and skills.  Knowles (1967, p.  278) pointed out that
        adults "engage in learning largely in response to pressures they
        feel from current life problems, then time perspective is one of
        immediate application...They tended to enter any educational
        activity in a problem-centered (not subject-centered) frame of
        mind."  The practical nature of adult learning was also pointed
        out by Love (1953), Johnstone and Rivera (1965), and Parker and
        Paisley (1966).  Houle (1961) found several goal-oriented
        learners - people who gained knowledge in order to put it to use
        in achieving some goal.  Sheffield (1964) and Flaherty (1968)
        using factor analysis, found two sorts of goal orientations: in
        one, the knowledge and skills are to be used in achieving a
        personal goal; in the other, they are used for a society or
        community goal.  All these research studies supported Knowles
        (1978) contention that adult learning meet three needs --
        individual, community, and institutional.
        
               Knowles (1970) believed adult education meant more than
        just helping adults learn rote information, because the process
        of maturing toward adulthood begins in childhood and continues as
        more and more characteristics of the adult emerge in the
        child/adolescent.  For him, andragogy was based upon four
        assumptions about the psychology of adult learners that were
        different from those for children.  As a person matures:
               1.      His self-concept moves from dependency toward
                       self-direction
                       (independence).
               2.      He amasses a body of experience that becomes a
                       resource for
                       learning (experience).
               3.      His readiness to learn is oriented developmental
                       tasks related to his social roles (readiness).
               4.      His time perspective changes and he no longer
                       wants to
                       postpone but immediately apply what he learns     
        
                       (application) (p.39).
        
               Describing the differences between children and adults,
        Knowles (1970) maintained that children enter the world as
        dependent and their first image of themselves as a separate
        identity is experiencing how h/er life is managed by the adult
        world.  
             "The adult's world impacts on him.  As he matures, he sees
             himself as being capable of self-direction.  The adult world
             often does not.  Rebellion against the adult world often
             erupts.  The adult world holds on to this  dependent
             personality as long as possible.  Adults view the role of
             children as full-time learners storing up the information
             adults have decided children should learn.  When an
             individual's self-concept begins to become wholly
             self-directing, he becomes psychologically, an adult.  He
             experiences a great need to be perceived by others as
             self-directing.  He sees himself as a producer of goods and
             services.  His chief source of self-fulfillment is now to
             perform as a worker, a spouse, a parent and citizen" (p. 
             39).
        
               Whereas, children expect to be directed by adults, adults
        need to be treated with respect, to make their own decisions, and
        to act as unique human beings.  Adults avoid situations in which
        they feel they are being treated like children.  Knowles (1970)
        believed that many adult learners store painful memories of their
        earlier learning experiences, and for the adult to be enticed
        back into systematic learning, the rewards of learning would have
        to outweigh the anticipated pain of learning.  Once a teacher
        places an adult learner into a dependent role, Knowles
        postulated, he is likely to experience rising resentment and
        resistance, and the learning experience for the adult will be
        diminished significantly (p.  40).
        
               After a lifetime of teacher-directed learning experiences,
        the adult must once again learn how to learn.  "Once the adult
        realizes he is responsible for his own learning, he experiences a
        sense of 'release and exhilaration.'  He enters into learning
        with 'deep ego-involvement.'  Motivating adult learners is not a
        problem if, and only if, the adult educator can make the
        experience one of self-discovery" (Knowles, 1978, p.  40).
        
               Knowles (1970) described the differences between children
        and adults as illustrated in the following way.
        
                            DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEARNERS
        
        Children                                     Adults
        1. Completely dependent-biologically    1. Independent           
        
                                                   biologically 
        2. World managed by others              2. Manages own world 
        3. Expects to be directed               3. Expects little        
        
                                                   direction 
        4. Social role-full-time learner        4. Social role-producer 
        5. Self-fulfillment is pleasing         5. Self-fulfillment found
        
           in to adults                            being a worker.
        6. View education as teacher-directed   6. Resents being taught  
        
                                                   as if he were a child
        7. Expects learning environment to be   7. Wants comfortable     
        
           learning uncomfortable                  environment
        8. Teachers do not actively listen to   8. Expect teachers to    
        
           listen to them                          their challenges
        9. Have little life experience          9. Possess a lot of life 
        
           experience
        10.Teacher decides what learners learn 10. Adults diagnose own   
        
                                                   learning 
        
               The primary difference between the child and adult learner
        was that the adult was more developmentally advanced.  Given this
        minor difference, Knowles (1970) maintained that all learning,
        even pedagogy, would benefit by application of adult learning
        principles.  
        
               The following are characteristics which indicate adherence
        to the principles Knowles (1970) believed promoted the psychology
        of effective adult learning.
        
        1.     Learning Climate for Adults.
        
        a.     One in which adults feel at ease.
        b.     Furniture and equipment should be                          
               comfortable.
        c.     Rooms should be arranged informally.
        d.     Decorated with adult tastes in mind.
        e.     Lighting and acoustics should consider                     
               declining audio-visual acuity.
        f.     Psychological climate should be one which is               
               accepts as respectful, and supportive.
        g.     Friendly and informal atmosphere.
        h.     Flip charts replace blackboards.
        i.     Teacher views learners as peers.
        j.     Teacher-facilitator is active listener.
        k.     Notion of a climate of adultness in the                    
               classroom.
        
        2.     Diagnosis of Needs for Adults
        
        a.     The adult will learn more deeply when                      
               motivated by what he knows he needs to learn.
        b.     Self-diagnosis is at the core of adult learning.
        
        c.     Assist the learner to measure gaps    
               between  present competence and those 
               required by the model so he can       
               experience a dissatisfaction with
               where he is at and what he must do to 
               experience desirable growth.
        
        3.     The Planning Process - The Lifelong Learning Principle
               Every individual tends to feel committed to             
               a decision (or an activity) to the extent               
               that he has participated in making it (VanNort, 1992). 
                  
        a.     Basic element of andragogy is that the               
               learner and teacher plan the learning                
               experience together.
        b.     Planning is translating needs into specific          
               educational objectives.
        c.     Designing and conducting learning experiences.
        d.     Evaluating the extent to which the objectives are    
               met.
        
        4.     Conducting Learning Experiences
        
        a.     Andragogical process treats the learning-teaching
               transaction as the mutual responsibility of learners 
               and teachers.
                             1.     Small group meetings.
                             2.     Planning committees.
                             3.     Learning-teaching teams.
                             4.     Consultation groups.
                             5.     Project task forces.
        
        5.     Evaluation of Learning
        
        a.     Crowning incongruence between traditional           
               educational practice and the adult's self-concept   
               of directivity is the act of a teacher giving a     
               grade to a student.               
        b.     Nothing makes an adult feel more childlike than     
               being judged by another adult.
        c.     Andragogical process prescribes a process of self-
               evaluation.
        d.     Evaluation can be seen as re-diagnosis of needs,    
               because this causes the adult to re-enter the       
               learning circle all over again and often with       
               renewed motivation.
        e.     This emphasis on re-diagnosis requires the adult    
               educator to role-model this practice.
        
               Knowles (1970) maintained that "the single most critical
        psychological  difference between children and adults as learners
        is the difference in assumptions we make about their
        self-concepts, and this is why these assumptions and their
        technological implications have been dealt with in so
        much detail."  Regarding experience, Knowles wrote, "a child
        views it as something that happens to him.  It is an external
        event that happens to him, and not an integral part of him.  But
        to an adult, his experience is he.  An adult is what he has done,
        and because of this, he has a deep investment in its value" (p. 
        44).
        
               There are three consequences regarding the difference in
        experiences for the adult learner which Knowles (1979) believed
        were essential to consider in planning for adult learning
        activities.
               1.     Adults have more to contribute to the learning of   
                      others--they are a rich resource for learning.
               2.     Adults have a richer foundation of experience to    
                      relate to new experiences.
               3.     Adults have acquired a large number of fixed habits 
                      and patterns of thought, and therefore, tend to be  
                      less open-minded (p.  44).
        
               Kidd's (1973) notions regarding adult experience and how
        it can be used in the learning transaction was that (1) adults
        have more experiences; (2) adults have different kinds of
        experiences; and (3) adult experiences are organized differently
        (p.  47-48.).
        
               Due to the fact that adults have greater experience than
        children, Knowles (1970) emphasized the need to use learning
        techniques that tap the experience of adult learners such as:  
               1.  group discussion        2.  case method study  
               3.  role-playing            4.  critical incident process
               5.  laboratory methods      6.  demonstrations
               7.  simulation exercises    8.  seminars
               9.  work conferences        10.  consultation supervision
               11.  counseling             12.  skill practice exercises
               13.  field practices        14.  group therapy
               15.  action projects        16.  community development    
        
           
        
               In using these methods, Knowles (1970) was promoting the
        practical application of learning to make it transferable to real
        life situations.  Numerous research studies indicated that the
        transfer of learning and the maintenance of behavioral change
        resulted from actually building into the design of the learning
        experiences provisions for the learner to plan and even rehearse
        how he is going to apply the learning in day-to-day living (p. 
        45).
        
               Knowles (1970) believed adults learn best when they
        progress from one phase of development to the next.  Robert
        Havighurst (1961), a developmental psychologist, defined this
        process as: "a task which arises at or about a certain period in
        the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads
        to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure
        leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproved by the
        society, and difficulty in later tasks"  Note that Havighurst did
        not distinguish between children and adults, but implied the
        principle applied to both.  
        
               Havighurst's and Orr's (1956) research promoted a
        developmental  phenomenon to the adult years.  "They have their
        phases of growth and resulting developmental tasks, readiness to
        learn and teachable moments.  But whereas developmental tasks of
        youth tend to be products primarily of physiological and mental
        maturation, those of the adult years are the products primarily
        of the evolution of social roles."  They divided the adult years
        into three distinct phases: 1) Early Adulthood; 2) Middle Age; 3)
        Later maturity. They concluded, "People do not launch themselves
        into adulthood with the momentum of their childhood and youth,
        and simply coast along toward old age...Adulthood has its
        transition points and crises.  It is a developmental period in
        almost as complete as a sense as childhood and adolescence are
        developmental periods" (p.  151).  
        
               For Knowles (1970), two principles for the technology of
        andragogy flow from this psychological difference in readiness to
        learn:
               1. The timing of learning - the sequence of a curriculum
                  must be timed so as to be in step with the adult
                  learner's developmental tasks
               2. The grouping of learners - the concept of developmental
                  tasks provides some guidance regarding the group of
                  learners.  Homogenous-heterogenous and subgroups must
                  be considered in order to meet all learner's needs (p. 
                  47).
        
               The crux for Knowles (1978) was that for a child,
        education was essentially a process of the accumulation of a
        reservoir of subject matter -- knowledge and skills -- that might
        be useful later in life.  Children tended to enter an educational
        activity in a subject-centered frame of mind.  Adults
        tended to have a perspective of immediacy of application toward
        most of their learning.  They engaged in learning largely in
        response to pressures they feel from their current life
        situation.  To adults, education was a process of improving their
        ability to deal with the life problems they face.  Adults tended
        to enter an educational activity in a problem-centered frame of
        mind.  This was a fundamental and significant psychological
        difference that the adult educator must consider in preparing to
        educate adults (p.  48).
        
               Kidd (1973) described four different psychological
        perceptions of adults regarding learning and problem solving:
        
        1.   No "correct" answer.  Most of the significant problems
             faced by an adult do not have a "correct" answer in the
             sense that the answer can be verified to the point that
             doubt or uncertainty is removed.  His uncertainty
             usually characterizes problems in business or marital
             relations or politics.  On the other hand, for most
             classroom problems of children, there is a "correct"
             answer, in the back of the book or elsewhere.
        
        2.   "Correctness" associated with traditions or               
             religion.  The situation for the adult learner may        
             be further complicated because for many problems          
             thought there may be no answer that will stand up         
             to rigorous rational tests, some answers are
             regarded as being "correct" in terms of tradition         
             or cultural habits or religion or an institution.         
             The adult, more than the child, is bound by these         
             stereotypes of what is "correct" and though               
             modification is always possible, such modifications may have 
             to run the gauntlet of rigid internal and external pressures 
            to the contrary.
        
        3.   Solutions have effects!  Any solution that an adult gives 
             to a problem is likely to have its immediate effects upon 
             other individuals.  Many social problems might be         
             "solved" theoretically, but a real-life solution may not  
             seem immediately possible because of the human              
             personalities involved.  However, it should not be          
             forgotten that one of the most important purposes of        
             adult education is to give adults the opportunity to work   
             out solutions free from the high,  cost of error.
        
        4.   Expectations of the "student" and the "teacher" may be
             different.  The child comes to school more or less to     
             learn what the school is teaching.  The adult may and     
             often does bring quite a different view to the classroom  
             from those held by the teacher.  But the tension set up   
             between the expectations of the teacher and the learner   
             is not necessarily undesirable: it can be the basis for   
             effective learning by both" (pp.  38-39).
        
               Kidd (1973) proposed there are four distinguishable
        activities in the process of problem solving:
               1.     Awareness or knowing a problem exists;
               2.     Preparing to find a solution;
               3.     Attempting to produce a solution;
               4.     Evaluating the adequacy of the attempted solution.
        
               These steps were discovered in many research projects of
        cognitive learning.  They can be learned and made systematic, and
        adults who become capable of using them seem able to maintain a
        high level of competency throughout the life span.  Processes
        such as this did not seem to be eroded by age, although the
        presence of apprehension, fear, or lack of confidence might have
        a strong negative impact (Kidd, 1973, p.  90).
        
               This information supported Knowles' conviction that adult
        learning was effective when it involved problem solving.  In
        fact, problem solving was the key of andragogy.  Adult living was
        essentially the activity of problem solving, and as the human
        living condition became increasingly complex as the
        information age continued to impact all societies, the ability to
        effectively problem solve would be essential for successful
        living.  The fact that adults were effective in this type of
        activity throughout their life spans supported the need to focus
        on this type of activity in adult education programs and in
        individual adult learning projects (Knowles, 1970; Tough, 1970).
        
               Of all the human learning attributes, Ausubel (1963)
        contended, judgment and reasoning ability seemed to reach a peak
        later in life.  These attributes were expressed both in
        intellectual and in social psychological processes.  There seemed
        to be substantial evidence to support the view that
        the greater the individual's intellectual endowment, the less
        were the deficits that come with aging.  Such deficits, if and
        when they appeared, were often associated with the disuse of
        thinking faculties.  Exercise of the mind seemed to retard
        deterioration.  The older adult could continue to learn
        meaningful and difficult things, although there was a decline in
        ability to remember isolated facts (p.  32).  
        
               Like Kidd (1973), who was breaking irrevocably with
        pedagogical tradition, Knowles (1970) hypothesized that the
        modern practice of adult education, or, the andragogical
        approach, was premised on three psychological assumptions about
        learning and teaching:
        
        1.     Adults can learn - (from Thorndike's findings "You  
               can teach an old dog new tricks.")  
                      a.     Lack of confidence is sometimes an issue for 
                            the adult
                             returning to the learning environment.
                      b.     Various psychological changes occur in the   
                            process of aging which effect the adult       
                           learner.
                      c.     Methods of teaching have changed which are   
                             more in tune with the way adults learn.      
                      d.     Adults respond less readily to external      
                             sanctions for learning (grades and external  
                             evaluations).
               2.     Learning is an internal process - 
                      a.     Learning is an internal process controlled   
                             by the learner.    
                      b.     Learning is described psychologically as     
                             need-meeting and goal-striving.
                      c.     The adult is motivated to learn to the       
                             extent that he feels a need to learn.
                      d.     The art of teaching is managing the learning 
                             environment and the interaction so that both 
                             teacher and learner each learn from the      
                             experience, but each in his/her own way.
                      e.     The implication here is that methods which   
                             involve the learner most deeply in           
                             self-directed inquiry will produce the       
                             greatest learning (p.  49).       
             3.     There are superior conditions for teaching-learning -
        
         
               
        
                                               Figure 3.
        
             CONDITIONS OF LEARNING AND PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
        
        1.   The learners feel a need to learn.  
        
        a.   The teacher exposes the learners to                          
             new possibilities of                                        
             self-fulfillment.
        b.   The teacher helps each learner                               
             clarify his own aspirations for                              
             behavior.
        c.   The teacher helps each learner                              
             diagnose the gap between his                                
             aspiration and his present
             level of performance.
        d.   The teacher helps the learner                                
            identify the life problems they                              
             experience because of the
             gaps in their personal equipment.
        
        2.   The learning environment is characterized by physical
             comfort, mutual trust and respect, mutual helpfulness,
             freedom of expression, and an acceptance of differences.     
                            
        e.   The teacher provides physical                                
             conditions that are comfortable and                          
             conducive to interaction.
        f.   The teacher accepts each learner as                          
             a person of worth and respects his                           
             feelings and ideas.
        g.   The teacher seeks to build                                   
             relationships of mutual trust and                            
             helpfulness among the students by                            
             encouraging cooperative
             activities and refraining from                               
             inducing judgmentalness.
        h.   The teacher exposes his own                                  
             feelings and contributes his                                 
             resources as a co-learner in
             the spirit of mutual inquiry.
        
        3.   The learners perceive the goals of a learning
             experience to be their goals.       
        i.   The teacher involves                                         
            in a mutual process of formulating                           
             learning objectives in which the                             
             needs of the students, of the
             teacher, of the institution, of the                          
            subject matter, and the society are                           
           taken into account.
        
        4. The learners accept a share of the responsibility for planning
        and operating a learning experience, and therefore, have a 
        feeling of commitment toward it.                               
        j.   The teacher shares his thinking                              
            about options available in the                                
           designing of learning experiences                              
          and the selection of materials and                              
         methods and involves the learners                                
        in deciding among them jointly.  
        
        5. The learners participate actively in the learning process.    
        
        k.   The teacher assists the learners to                          
            organize subjects in project                                 
             groups, learning-teaching teams, or                          
            independent study to share the                                
           responsibility in the process of
             mutual inquiry.  
        
        6. The learning process is related to and makes use of the
        experience of the learners.                       
        l.  The teacher helps the students                                
           exploit their own experiences as                              
            resources for learning through the                            
           use of such techniques as
            discussion, role playing, case                                
           method, etc.
        m.  The teacher gears the presentation                            
           of his own resources to the levels                            
            of experience of his particular                               
           learners.
        n.  The teacher helps the learners to                             
           apply new learning to their                                   
            experience, and thus to
            make the learning more meaningful                             
           and integrated.
        
        7. The learners have a sense of progress toward their goals.     
        o.   The teacher involves the learners                            
            in developing mutually acceptable                             
           criteria and methods for measuring                             
          progress toward the learning                                    
         objectives.
        p.   The teacher assists the learners                             
            develop and apply procedures for                             
             self-evaluation according to the                             
            criteria (Gagne, 1965).
               Defending his position, Knowles cited Eduard Lindeman
        (1926),  to explain the psychology of andragogy:
             "I am conceiving adult education in terms of a new technique
             for learning, a technique as essential to the college
             graduate as to the unlettered manual worker.  It represents
             a process by which the adult learns to become aware of and
             to evaluate his experience.  To do this he cannot begin by
             studying "subjects" in the hope that some day this
             information will be useful.  On the contrary, he begins by
             giving attention to situations in which he finds himself, to
             problems which include obstacles to his self-fulfillment. 
             Facts and information from the differentiated spheres of
             knowledge are used, not for the purpose of  accumulation,
             but because of need in solving problems.  In this process
             the teacher finds a new function.  He is no longer the
             oracle who speaks from the platform of authority, but rather
             the guide, the pointer-out who also participates in learning
             to the proportion to the vitality and relevancy of his facts
             and experiences.  In short, my conception of adult education
             is this:  a cooperative venture in non-authoritarian,
             informal learning, the chief purpose of which is to discover
             the meaning of experience; a quest of the mind which digs
             down to the roots of the preconceptions which formulate our
             conduct; a technique of learning for adults which makes
             education coterminous with life and hence elevates living
             itself to the level of adventurous experiment."  The truly
             artistic teacher of adults, Knowles (1970) believed,
             perceived the locus of responsibility for learning to be the
             learner.  In this perspective, he was proposing a radical
             new paradigm for the education process.  He wrote, "the
             teacher must suppress his compulsion to teach what he knows
             in favor of permitting the students to learn for themselves
             what they really want  to learn."  He called this the
             "theological foundation" of adult education, and without it
             the adult educator was more likely to hinder rather than
             facilitate the learning process (p.51). 
        
               Knowles again quoted Lindeman:
               
               "He is no longer the oracle who speaks from the platform
        of authority, but rather the guide, the pointer-outer who also
        participates in learning in proportion to the vitality and
        relevancy of his facts and experiences. 
             In short, my conception of adult education is this: a
             cooperative venture in non-authoritarian, informal learning,
             the chief purpose of which is to discover the meaning of
             experience; a technique of learning for adults which
             education coterminous with life and hence elevates living
             itself to the level of adventurous experiment" (cited in
             Gessner, 1956, p.  160).  
                      
               When older students were interviewed about difficulties in
        their educational courses, again and again they reported:
               1.      Rigidity, lack of communication, coldness and     
        
                       impersonality of the registration procedure.
               2.      Coldness, hostility, indifference of faculty and
                       other students.
               3.      Lack of facilities designed for needs of older or 
        
                       part-time students.
               4.      Lack of assistance in mastering the complexities  
        
                       of the institutional environment.
               5.      Lack of assistance in mastering the first tests or
        
                       assignments (Hunsaker & Pierce,1959).
        
               These research findings supported Knowles' contention that
        the psychology of adult learners required special considerations,
        and unless these were met, the adult learning experience would
        not be effective.
        
               In order to validate his hypotheses regarding these key
        psychological principles by which adults learn, Knowles (1978)
        cited both scientific and humanist learning theorists to explain
        his position regarding andragogy.  
        
        The three main schools of learning theory:
             1.  Behaviorists: Represented by Thorndike, Skinner,
                 Gagne, et al.
             2.  Cognitivists: Represented by Bruner, Ausubel, Hunt.
             3.  Humanists:    Represented by Rogers, Maslow, Jourard,
                               et al.
        
               Robert Mills Gagne (1965) stated, "I do not think learning
        is a phenomenon which can be explained by simple theories,
        despite the admitted intellectual appeal that such theories
        have."  He believed that a number of useful generalizations can
        be made about eight distinguishable classes of performance change
        which he describes as conditions of learning.
        
        Type 1. Signal Learning. The individual learns to make a
        general, diffuse response to a signal.  This is the classical
        conditioned response of Pavlov.
        
        Type 2.  Stimulus-Response Learning.  The learner acquires a
        precise response to a discriminated stimulus.  What is learned is
        a connection (Thorndike) or a discriminated operant (Skinner),    
        sometimes an instrumental response (Kimble).
        
        Type 3.  Chaining.  What is required is a chain of two or    
        more stimulus-response connections.  The  conditions for such
        learning were described by Skinner and others.
        
        Type 4. Verbal Association.  Verbal association is the            
        learning of chains that are verbal.  Basically, the conditions
        resemble those for other (motor) chains.  However, the presence   
        of language in the human being makes this a special type, because
        internal links may be selected from the individual's previously
        learned repertoire of language.
        
        Type 5.  Multiple Discrimination.  The individual learns to   
        make different identifying responses to as many different
        stimuli, which may resemble each other in physical appearance to
        a greater or lesser degree.
        
        Type 6.  Concept Learning.  The learner acquires a capability 
        of making a common response to a class of stimuli that may differ
        from each other widely in physical appearance.  He is able to
        make a response that identifies an entire class of objects or
        events.
        
        Type 7.  Principle Learning.  In simplest terms, a principle  
        is a chain of two or more concepts.  It functions to control
        behavior in the manner suggested by a verbalized rule of the form
        "If A, then B," which, of course, may be also learned as Type 4.
        
        Type 8.  Problem Solving.  Problem solving is a kind of       
        learning that requires the internal events usually called
        thinking.  Two or more previously acquired principles are somehow 
        combined to produce a new capability that can be shown to depend
        on a "higher order" principle.  (Gagne, 1985, pp.  58-59).  
        
               B.F.  Skinner objected to theories, because the hypothesis
        formulation and testing procedures they generate are wasteful and
        misleading.  "They usually send the investigator down the wrong
        paths, and even if the scientific logic makes them
        self-correcting, the paths back are strewn with discarded
        theories." (cited in Hilgard, 1966, p.  143.).  Skinner (1968)
        postulated that the end result of scientific investigation is a
        "described functional relationship demonstrated in the data." 
        After reviewing the classical theories he concluded that "such
        theories are now of historical interest only, and unfortunately
        much of the work which was done to support them is also of little
        current value.  We may turn instead to a more adequate analysis
        of the changes which take place as a student learns" (p.  8). 
        Two concepts lie at the heart of B.F. Skinner's treatment of
        learning: (1) control.  "Recent improvements in the conditions
        which control behavior in the field of learning are of two
        principal sorts.  The Law of Effect has been taken seriously; we
        have made sure that effects do occur under conditions which are
        optimal for producing changes called "learning".  (2) shaping. 
        "Once we have arranged the particular type of consequence called
        a reinforcement, our techniques permit us to shape the behavior
        of an organism almost at will" (p.  10).
        
               Crow and Crow (1963) promoted the principle that learning
        involves change.  It is concerned with the acquisition of habits,
        knowledge, and attitudes.  It enables the individual to make both
        personal and social adjustments.  Since the concept of change is
        inherent in the concept of learning, any change in behavior
        implies that learning is taking place or has taken place. 
        Learning that occurs during the process of change can be referred
        to as the learning process (p.1).
        
               For Harris and Schwahn (1961), "Learning is essentially
        change due to the experience, but it is distinguished from
        learning as product (which emphasizes the end result or outcome
        of the learning experience), learning as process (which
        emphasizes what happens during the course of a learning
        experience in attaining a given learning product or outcome), and
        learning as function (which emphasizes certain critical aspects
        of learning, such as motivation, retention, and transfer, which
        presumably make behavioral changes in human learning possible)
        (pp.  1-2).
        
               Jerome Bruner (1966) observed, "It is easy enough to use
        one's chosen theory for explaining modifications in behavior as
        an instrument for describing growth; there are so many aspects of
        growth that any theory can find something that it can explain
        well."  He listed six "benchmarks" describing the nature of
        intellectual growth against which one could measured learning.
        1.   Growth is characterized by increasing independence of
             response from the immediate nature of the stimulus.
        2.   Growth depends upon internalizing events into a "storage
             system" that corresponds to the environment.
        3.   Intellectual growth involves an increasing capacity to say   
            to oneself and others, by means of words and symbols, what   
             one has done or what one will do.
        4.   Intellectual development depends upon a systematic and
             contingent interaction between a tutor and learner.
        5.   Teaching is vastly facilitated by the medium of language,    
            which ends by being not only the medium for exchange but the 
             instrument that the learner can then use himself in bringing
             order into the environment.
        6.   Intellectual development is marked by increasing capacity to
             deal with several alternatives simultaneously, to tend to    
            the several sequences during the same period of time, and to 
             allocate time and attention in a manner appropriate to these
             multiple demands (pp.  4-6.)
        
               The most dynamic and prolific of the humanist
        psychologists, Carl Rogers (1969), wrote: "Let me define a bit
        more precisely the elements which are involved in such
        significant or experiential learning.  It has a quality of
        personal involvement-the whole person in both his feeling and
        cognitive aspects being in the learning event.  It is
        self-initiated.  Even when the impetus or stimulus comes from the
        outside, the sense of discovery of reaching out, of grasping and
        comprehending, comes from within.  It is pervasive.  It makes a
        difference in the behavior, attitudes, perhaps even the
        personality of the learner.  It is evaluated by the learner.  He
        knows whether it is meeting his need, whether it leads toward
        what he wants to know, whether it illuminates the dark area of
        ignorance he is experiencing.  the locus of evaluation, we might
        say, resides definitely in the learner.  Its essence is meaning. 
        When such learning takes place, the element of meaning to the
        learner is built into the whole experience" (p.  5).
        
               Another humanist, Abraham Maslow (1972) saw the goal of
        learning to be self-actualization, the full use of talents,
        capacities, potentialities, etc.  He conceived of growth toward
        this goal as being determined by the relationship of two sets of
        forces operating within each individual.  "One set clings to
        safety and defensiveness out of fear, tending to regress
        backward, hanging on to the past.  The other set of forces impels
        him forward toward wholeness to Self and uniqueness of Self,
        toward full functioning of all his capacities.  We grow forward
        when the delights of growth and anxieties of safety are greater
        than the anxieties of growth and the delights of safety (pp. 
        44-45).
        
               A third proponent of humanistic psychology in adult
        education, Sidney Jourard (1972), developed the concept of
        independent learning.  He wrote, "...that independent learning is
        problematic is most peculiar, because man always and only learns
        by himself...Learning is not a task or problem; it is a way to be
        in the world.  Man learns as he pursues goals and projects that
        have meaning for him.  He is always learning something.  Perhaps
        the key to the problem of independent learning lies in the phrase
        "the learner has the need and the capacity to assume
        responsibility for his own continuing learning" (p. 66).  Jourard
        based andragogical theory on at least four main assumptions that
        are different from those of pedagogy:
        
        1.   Changes in Self-Concept.  This assumption is that as a
             person grows and matures his self-concept moves from one of
             total dependency (as is the reality of the infant) to one of 
            increasing self-directedness.
        
        2.   The Role of Experience.  This assumption is that as an
             individual matures he accumulates an expanding reservoir of
             experience that causes him to become an increasingly rich
             resource for learning, and at the same time provides him     
            with a broadening base to which to relate new learning.  To  
             a child, experience is something that happens to him; to an  
            adult, his experience is "who he is".
        
        3.   Readiness to Learn.  This assumption is that as an           
            individual matures, his readiness to learn is decreasingly   
             the product of his biological development and academic       
            pressures and is increasingly the product of the             
             developmental tasks required for the performance of his      
            evolving social roles.
        
        4.   Orientation to Learning.  This assumption is that children   
            have been conditioned to have a subject-centered orientation 
             to learning, whereas adults tend to have a problem-centered
             orientation to learning.  The adult comes into an            
            educational activity largely because he is experiencing some  
           inadequacy in coping with current life problems.  Therefore,   
          he enters into education with a problem-centered orientation    
         to learning (p.58).
        
               Human beings seemed to seek after learning; learning
        seemed to be a condition of a healthy organism.  The objective in
        adult education, Kidd (1973) maintained, was to provide the
        climate and atmosphere and freedom and self-discipline in which
        learning is promoted.  It is not so much doing something to the
        body-mind-emotions, but setting up the conditions whereby
        the person will behave in a learning way (p.14).
        
               Knowles (1970) main concern with Piaget, Bruner and other
        cognitive theorists who adhered to the scientific model was that 
        they were unbalanced in their overemphasis on cognitive skills at
        the expense of emotional development;  that they are preoccupied
        with the aggressive and autonomous motives to the exclusion of
        the homonymous, libidinal, and communal motives; and that they
        concern themselves with concept attainment to the exclusion of
        concept formation or invention (Jones, 1968, p.  97).  He
        advocated adherence to the humanistic psychological approach in
        educating adult learners, believing their perceptions were more
        supportive of the way adults actually learn.  
        
               Social scientists, and specifically psychiatrists and some
        psychologists, contributed significantly to the psychology of
        adult education.  
        
               Erik Erikson (1959) provided the "eight stages of man,"
        the last three occurring during the adult years, as a framework
        for understanding the stages of personality development.  
        
               6.     Young adulthood, in which the basic issue is        
                     intimacy vs. isolation.
        
               7.     Adulthood, in which the basic issue is generativity 
                     vs. stagnation.
        
               8.     The final stage, in which the basic issue is        
                     integrity vs. despair. 
                      
               Rogers (1951) viewed learning as a completely internal
        process controlled by the learner and engaging his whole being in
        interaction with his environment as he perceives it.  He further
        postulated that learning is natural, and required as the life
        process of breathing (p.  497).  He acknowledged his affinity
        with Gordon Allport (1955, 1960, 1961) in defining growth not as
        a process of "being shaped," but a process of becoming.  Rogers
        summarized their congruity by writing: "I should like to point
        out one final characteristic of these individuals as they strive
        to discover and become themselves.  It is that the individual
        
        seems to become more content to be a 'process' rather than a
        'product'." (p.  122).  
        
               The discipline of developmental psychology contributed a
        growing body of knowledge about changes with age through the life
        span in such characteristics as physical and mental capabilities,
        interests, attitudes, values, creativity and life styles.  Presey
        and Kuhlen (1957) collected research findings on human
        development and laid the foundation of a new field of
        specialization-life-span developmental psychology--which was
        built on by such scholars as Bischof (1969), and Goulet and
        Baltes (1970).  Havighurst (1961) identified the developmental
        tasks associated with different stages of growth which give rise
        to a person's readiness to learn different things at different
        times and create "teachable moments."  A popular portrayal of the
        "Predictable Crises of Adult Life" was provided by Sheehy (1974)
        and a more scholarly summary of research findings on adult
        development and learning by Knox (1977).  Closely related to this
        discipline is gerontology, which has produced a large volume of
        research findings regarding the aging process in later years
        (Birren, 1964; Neugarten, 1964 and 1968; Woodruff and Birren,
        1975).
