                  2.  THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN ADULT EDUCATION
        
               Just 42 years ago, on May 14, 1951, in Columbus, Ohio, the
        Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.  was founded.  Prompted
        by its inception and the oncoming information age, the increase
        in life expectancy, the exponential rates of change, and the
        realization that in order for the individual to not suffer from
        intellectual obsolescence, myriad adult educators began
        advocating for reinventing the concept of youth and especially,
        adult education.
        
               Attempts to bring the isolated concepts, insights, and
        research findings regarding adult learning together into an
        integrated framework had already begun in the late 1940's with
        the publication of Harry Overstreet's, "The Mature Mind", and
        continued with Knowles' Informal Adult Education in 1950, Edmund
        Brunner's Overview of Research in Adult Education in 1954, J.R.
        Kidd's How Adults Learn in 1959, J.R.  Gibb's chapter on
        "Learning Theory in Adult Education" in the Handbook of Adult
        Education in the U.S.  in 1960, and Harry L. Miller's Teaching
        and Learning in Adult Education in 1964.  These works were
        limited, because they were more a descriptive listing of concepts
        and principles rather than comprehensive, coherent, and
        integrated theoretical frameworks.  An adult education concept
        was evolving in Europe for some time under the unified theory of
        andragogy and introduced in 1967 by Yugoslavian adult educator,
        Susan Savicevic.  Knowles introduced it into America in an
        article "Andragogy, Not Pedagogy" in Adult Leadership in April,
        1968.  
        
               Tragically, Knowles (1978) reported, the earlier
        traditions of teaching and learning were aborted and lost with
        the fall of Rome.  All the great teachers of ancient history--Lao
        Tse and Confucius of China, the Hebrew prophets, Jesus, Socrates,
        Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Cicero, Quintilian--were chiefly
        teachers of adults, not children.  They made assumptions about
        learning, such as learning is a process of discovery by the
        learner, and used procedures like dialogue and "learning by
        doing" that came to be labelled "pagan" and were forbidden when
        monastic schools started being organized in the seventh century
        (p.53).  For nearly 12 centuries, adult education lay dormant.
        
               Knowles (1978) speculated that with growing support from
        research (Bruner, 1961; Erikson, 1950, 1959, 1964; Getzels and
        Jackson, 1962; Bower and Hollister, 1967; Iscoe and Stevenson,
        1950; White, 1959) that "as an individual matures, his need and
        capacity to be self-directing, to utilize his experience in
        learning, to identify his own readiness to learn, and to organize
        his learning around life problems, increases rapidly during
        adolescence" (p.54).
        
               Within the education establishment and beginning with the
        writing of Eduard C.  Lindeman, whom many consider to be the
        "Father of Adult Education", and culminating in the writings of
        J.R.  Kidd and Malcolm Knowles, adult education began to
        influence the behavior, attitudes and beliefs of educators
        world-wide.  Not to misrepresent the reader into believing that
        only American adult educators were impacting the world of adult
        education, the following list of leaders in other nations is
        presented to indicate the scope of work being done throughout the
        world in advocating for a new vision of adult education and
        lifelong learning.
        
               Founders of Adult Education Throughout the World.  
                      Seppo Kontianen - Finland
                      Erik Erikson - Switzerland
                      Havighurst - England
                      Loevinger - England
                      Perry - England
                      Koring - Germany
                      Niemi - Finland
        
               Blakely (1960) wrote that "adult education implies
        purposeful systematic learning, in contrast to random unexamined
        experience.  It contains elements of science and art (a phrase
        that Knowles would later incorporate into his own definition of
        andragogy).  Second, adult education implies a respect for the
        purposes and integrity of the learner.  It has an ethic. 
        Whatever interests free citizens in a free society is subject
        matter for adult education."  He noted three trends occurring in
        adult education programs in western civilization which influenced
        new thinking regarding the age-old practice of education:
               1.      Methods used with adults are specifically designed
                       for them.
               2.      Participation by the adult learner is essential in
                       the planning process.
               3.      Media of mass communication are increasingly being
                       used as tools with adults (pp.  4-5).
        
               Adult education, Blakely (1960) maintained, "is the
        growing and the harvest, for which formal schooling is only the
        planting and the cultivation.  Adult education is a purposeful
        and systematic use of the opportunities of a society in which all
        its institutions--government, business, unions, and civil
        organizations, its homes, neighborhoods, cities, states, and the
        nation--are concerned with helping individuals fulfill
        themselves.  This is the ideal educational society" (p.  8).     
        
        
               In 1947, Lundberg wrote that change was terribly
        contemporary.  He began to explore the rapid developments in the
        world and predicted significant cultural changes were yet to come
        in all areas of human endeavor, but especially in education. 
        Regarding the burgeoning culture, Bryson (1936) proposed that the
        culture always determines the form, the content, and the scope of
        its organized education.  Each characteristic of a civilization,
        both old and new, created the need for particular knowledge,
        skills, understandings, and qualities on the part of those who
        make up the society and keep the civilization in operation. 
        Given the change taking place in the civilization and the
        incongruent response on the part of the culture to adapt to it,
        new and unique educational programs needed to be created.
               
               Some characteristics of the American culture in the 1960's
        and 1970's and their implications for adult education were:
               1.      Rapidity of change - (Future Shock, 1970).
               2.      Dominance of technology - (Third Wave, 1980).
               3.      Intensity of specialization - (Reinventing the
                       Corporation, (1985).
               4.      Complexity of human relationships - (How Adults
                       Learn, 1973).
               5.      Vastness of opportunity - (Future Shock, 1973).
        
               In response to these characteristics, Hallenbach (1960)
        described the function of adult education as:
               1.     Expanding communication skills.
               2.     Developing mental flexibility.
               3.     Improving human relations.
               4.     Facilitating participation in the learning process.
               5.     Expediting personal growth through self-discovery.
        
               Powell and Benne (1960) maintained that the academic
        group, the community development group and the group dynamics
        school of adult education all disagree on some issues, but they
        do agree on the following principles of adult education:
               1.      There is an adult mind and it is different from
                       that of the youth and the undergraduate.
               2.      There is an interplay of intellectual and
                       emotional elements in all adult learning.
               3.      There is a concern with the guidance and
                       understanding of action.
               4.      Individual learning can most effectively occur in
                       a continuing face-to-face group.
               5.      The individual is the learner, the agent of
                       learning and of judgement and acting.
               6.      All adult learners are activated by optimism and
                       self-creative activity.
               7.      Adults are focused on skills of implicit
                       commitment.
        
               "The true end of community development, as of all adult
        education," Cyril Houle (1956) wrote, "is to make life better by
        changing people in desirable ways" (p.  10).   
        
               In extensive research by Houle and others, many factors
        were discovered regarding the adult learner:
               1.      Interest in education among adults is very
                       widespread.
               2.      Far more people than ever before have been exposed
                       to education as part of their adult experience and
                       are motivated to continue learning if suitable
                       opportunities are provided.
               3.      Educational experiences for adults should be
                       introduced into the activities to which adults
                       choose to belong.
               4.      The more education people have the more they are
                       likely to desire as they grow older.
               5.      Participation in education must be directed toward
                       the achievement of goals which the students feel
                       to be real and significant.
               6.      Programs of adult education must be directed
                       toward the achievement of goals which the students
                       feel to be real and significant.
               7.      The success of an educational activity for adults
                       is enhanced if it starts at the level of the
                       students and then proceeds to more abstract
                       things.
               8.      The motivations of adult learning grow in part out
                       of the social setting in which the learner lives.
               9.      Almost all adults who lack the basic tools of
                       learning can achieve them if the subjects are well
                       taught (p.  44).
        
               Gibb (1960) postulated that the adult educator can find
        the most penetrating analyses of human learning and the most
        significant help in understanding the problems of the adult
        learning situation from the fields of psychotherapy, social
        anthropology, group psychology, and cultural and organizational
        sociology.  He maintained adults do not always respond to the
        traditional extrinsic rewards of the typical classroom.  Many
        adults require something other than the usual dependency
        relationship between learner and teacher -- new relationships for
        which neither the learner nor teacher are adequately prepared. 
        The typical knowledge-centered curriculum and method contained
        less perceived relevance for the adult than the child.  He listed
        the following primary principles of adult learning:
        
        1.   Adult learning must be problem centered.  For the most       
             significant kinds of learning that adults do, the problem
             must be a problem for the learner, not a problem of the
             teacher.  When the learner sees a problem he is motivated to
             seek some kind of solution.  The teacher cannot "give"
             another person a problem, cannot expect "read chapter four"
             to be a learning process.  In the learning situation, the    
              problems must arise in the experiences, perplexities,
             doubts, and thinking of the learner.  Learning must be
             motivated.  The problem serves to provide energy, direction,
             and sustaining force for the activities of the learner (pp. 
             59-60).
        2.   Learning must be experience-centered.  The learner must get
             data on his problem.  The data may come from experiments
             relevant to the problem, from authorities who may tell of
             their experiences, from logical argument, or from direct
             sensory experiences of the learner (p.  59).
        3.   Experience must be meaningful to the adult learner.  The
             experience that bears upon the problem must be suited to
             some degree to the learner's innate capacity to perceive,
             his age, his interests, his readiness and
             his capacity to understand.  Meaning does not come passively 
             to the non-participative learner.
        4.   The adult learner must be free to look at the experience.
             Learners learn from others in social situations.  The
             learner who is emotionally and psychologically "free" to
             look at experiences is ready to start on the process of
             acquiring the necessary behavior with which to learn and    
             grow.  For learning to proceed creatively, and optimally,
             the learning must be adjusted emotionally to the learning
             situation, the teacher, the fellow students, and to the
             classroom climate (p.  60).
        5.   The goals must be set and the search organized by the adult
             learner.  In order that problems be problems to the learner,
             it is significant that the goals of the broad learning quest
             be set by the learner.  It is also significant that the
             learner participate in the organization of the total
             learning situation.  Learning even at the simplest levels is
             not trial and error.  The learner must be free to make
             errors, to explain alternative solutions to problems, and to
             participate in decisions about the organization of his
             learning environment.  His attempts at problem solving must
             be a series of provisional tries, which become increasingly  
             effective as he gets feedback on each try and modifies
             subsequent explorations.  
        6.   The adult learner must have feedback about progress made
             toward his personal goals.  Evaluation of progress toward
             goals, particularly when goals have been set by the learner,
             is highly important.  Some indication of success or failure,
             some frame of reference for determining adequacy of problem
             solution, some corroboration that the alley is not blind,
             some reality factor with which to assess one's   
             achievement against one's level of  aspiration, some
             knowledge of success and failure--all are necessary in the
             functional feedback process (pp.  54-55).
        
               In 1956, Bugelski speculated that the future of adult
        education would need increased focus in the following areas:
        1.   A growth in research in areas thought of as adult education.
        2.   Greater attention to the institutional settings in which
             learning occurs.  
        3.   Further expansion of non-institutional adult learning
             attitudes.
        4.   Greater integration of learning theory with innovation and
             invention.
        5.   More experimentation with adults in adult learning settings.
        6.   More specific study of the problems that adults face, about
             which they must learn, and for which they must prepare.
        7.   Greater development of the social psychology of learning.
        8.   Increasing development upon the needs of the learner.
        9.   Increasing concentration upon the needs of the learner.
        10.  Closer relationship of therapy to learning theory.
        11.  Ascendence of theories of cognition and insight over
             theories of punishment and reward (pp.  61-64).
        
               Liverlight (1959) described what he considered to be the
        characteristics of the adult learner as:           
        1.   Possessing more experience and a different quality of
             experience to contribute to the learning situation.
        2.   Being ready to learn different things than the youthful
             learner because he faces different developmental tasks.
        3.   Tending to be more autonomous and therefore, less
             comfortable in a dependent role.
        4.   Being more interested in the immediate usefulness of new
             knowledge (application of theory) (p.  32).
        
               Kelley (1951) noted certain conditions for adult learning
        to take place. They are:
        1.   Understanding and accepting objectives and procedures.
        2.   Making ideas available.
        3.   Select the sources of ideas.
        4.   Develop the general design.
        5.   Orient leaders and learners to the purpose and plan of the
             learning program.
        6.   Plan for evaluation (pp.  83-85).
        
               In 1959, Brunner maintained there were significant areas
        which needed further research to advance the art and science of
        adult education.  These included:
        1.   Who is the adult learner?
        2.   What are his/her characteristics?
        3.   What changes in speed take place as the adult ages?
        4.   What changes in his/her physical capacities occur as he ages
             which might affect his learning ability.
        5.   What is the nature of the emotional development of the adult
             as it relates to his developmental needs?
        6.   What motivates the adult learner?  (p.  111).
        
               Focusing on the adult educator, Liveright (1959) advocated
        for those occupying positions of responsibility in adult
        education to operate in a far more complicated pattern than those
        who practice the traditional profession of youth education.  "The
        future will bring increased diversification rather than greater
        simplification.  As the broad field of adult education grows,
        the education of leaders can increasingly be built around a
        common case of tested knowledge and belief.  While the general
        shape of the field is no longer as obscure as it used to be, it
        still has many 'dark corners.'  Many of the fundamentals which
        underlie successful theory and practice have yet to be
        discovered.  It may be hoped that as new knowledge grows the
        future will bring clearer and firmer, as well as more
        co-ordinated, ways of educating adults and adult education
        leaders" (p.  128).
        
               Ross (1957) believed that new developments in adult
        education would greatly enhance the development of human
        relationships.  He described them as the:
        1.   Acceleration and spread of human, social and technological 
             change.
        2.   Unfreezing of cultural barriers.
        3.   Flowering of volunteer social agencies concerned with
             societal problems.
        4.   Tapping of the human ability of free women.
        5.   Forces of change creating personal uncertainty (p.  496).
        
               Generations, Cross (1971) maintained, were promised the
        rewards of middle-class affluence if they made it through the
        conventional formal academic system.  All this learning need not
        take place only in classrooms, but in careers, on the job, and in
        the pursuits of life.  Educators forgot at times that a youngster
        from the lower socioeconomic quartile, whatever his or her
        talent, had a much poorer chance of entering higher education
        than does a youngster in the top socioeconomic quartile (p.  7).
        
               Havighurst (1970) advocated that it was crucial, for the
        community and the race, but not less for the individual human
        being to engage in lifelong learning.
        
             Adulthood is not all smooth sailing across a well-charted
        sea with no adventures or mishaps.  People do not launch
        themselves into adulthood with the momentum of their childhood or
        youth and simply coast along to old age.  There are fully as many
        new problems to solve and new situations to grasp during the
        adult years as there are during the earlier periods of life. 
        Adulthood has its transition point and its crises.  It is a
        developmental period in almost as completely a sense as     
        childhood and adolescence are developmental periods (p.  27).
        
               Hesburgh et al.  (1974) hypothesized the changing nature
        of our society required virtually all citizens to gain new skills
        and intellectual orientations throughout their lives.  Formal
        education of children, adolescents, and young adults, once
        thought of as a "vaccine that would prevent ignorance later in
        life," was recognized as inadequate by itself to give people all
        the educational guidance they will need to last a lifetime.  The
        obsolescence of knowledge, the rapid growth of new knowledge, the
        shifts in national priorities, the multiplication and complexity
        of social problems, and the close relationship between the
        application of knowledge and social progress all led to the
        conclusion that lifelong learning was not only desirable but
        necessary (p.  3).
        
               If the United States were to become a learning society,
        significant changes would need to be implemented in changing
        attitudes toward the design of education.  Terms like continuing
        education  or adult education were too conventional and
        administrative in meaning to encompass the comprehensive
        responses called for in attitudes and national policy.  The
        learning society would be based upon the concept of lifelong
        learning and referred to as a universe of purposeful learning
        opportunities found both with and outside the formal or core,
        academic systems.  
        
               By 1975, Stanley Moses (1971) estimated that more than 80
        million adults would be counted in a learning force outside the
        realm of traditional educational programs.  Lifelong learning
        would become a vast enterprise involving millions of citizens who
        may never enter a college door or who may never return after once
        enrolling (p.  5).
        
               Peter Drucker (1969) referred to an imminent conflict
        between extended schooling - conventional education for
        eighteen-to twenty-two year olds-and continuing education.  "If
        educators give any thought to the question, they assume that we
        should have both ever-extended schooling and continuing
        education.  But the two are actually in opposition.  Extended
        schooling assumes that we will cram more and more into the
        preparation for life and work.  Continuing education assumes that
        one can only learn before one becomes an adult...Above all,
        extended schooling believes that the longer we keep the young
        away from work and life, the more they will have learned. 
        Continuing education assumes, on the contrary, that the more
        experience in life and work people have, the more eager they will
        be to learn and the more capable they will be of learning" (p. 
        323).
        
               In a true learning society, formal education would be
        spread throughout an individual's lifetime.  This reflects a
        recognition that people learn more readily when they see a clear
        need to do so, and also that some learning is more appropriate to
        one age than to another.  It makes little difference where or how
        learning takes place, whether it occurs in the classroom or on
        the job, at age twenty, fifty, or seventy, as long as it does
        take place, and under circumstances appropriate to the learner. 
        "Education for adults as well as for children should be centered
        on the needs of the learner" (Hesburgh, et.al, 1974, p.6).  The
        authors maintained that under a system of lifelong learning, all
        educational and voluntary learning institutions would share the
        responsibility for helping people to educate themselves. 
        Employers, for example, would give greater recognition than they
        do to the potential of the work place as a prime site for
        vocational upgrading and personal fulfillment through
        well-designed educational programs.  Church-related groups,
        families, labor unions, and the media all have unused potential
        for purposeful learning.  In the future, all the major
        institutions of society should be conscious of their educational
        functions and take deliberate, planned steps to improve them (p. 
        8).
        
               After participating in a national task force on adult
        education, Hesburgh et al.  (1974) suggested the following
        changes be made to  formal educational processes to establish a
        greater emphasis on lifelong learning: 
        1.   A substantial part of any university's undergraduate
             curriculum in every subject matter area should be redesigned
             to help students to learn how to carry out program of
             self-education and lifelong learning (p.10).
        2.   The responsibilities among institutions for inculcating
             skills and attitudes favoring lifelong learning differ
             according to institutional type and purpose; these different
             responsibilities should be recognized and appropriate steps
             taken to meet them (p. 12).
        3.   The congress should enact a universal bill of educational
             rights that would guarantee every citizen access to the
             widest possible educational opportunities (p.  15).
        4.   Changes are needed in public policies to promote lifelong
             learning through released time from employment, tax
             deductions or tax credits, and retraining programs that
             promise new careers.  Public policy should encourage the use
             of school and college facilities for community education
             purposes.
        5.   Model programs of in-service education should be developed
             for public employees and elected officials (p.18).
        6.   Consortia of institutions should be established on a local,
             regional and national basis to pool resources for continuing
             education, with the aim of making sure that virtually all    
             citizens have access to continuous learning of high quality  
             (p.  22).
        7.   Each university should continuously renew its commitments as
             well as identify the resources necessary to meet its
             responsibility in lifelong learning.  Account should be
             taken of the changing educational needs of groups to be
             served, and strong efforts should be made to improve the
             access to programs (p.  24).
        
               Eduard C.  Lindeman (1961) expressed the view that "adult
        education, accurately defined, begins where vocational education
        leaves off.  Its purpose is to put meaning into the whole of
        life."  Hesburgh et al. (1974) wrote that Lindeman's ideas did
        not fair very well at the time, because he espoused a liberal
        education tradition (p.  5).   J. McConnaughey (1967) asserted: 
        "Teaching is teaching and learning is learning at any level and
        under any circumstances.  If teaching is an accepted function of
        the university, then the extension of the teaching function to
        the larger community is a question of interpretation and not a
        third new university function" (p.  7).  
        
             E.I.  Johnson (1966), in outlining his view of continuing
        education, stated: "The great need now is for us (universities)
        to engage all these (urban) bodies in a great civic dialogue
        about the long-range goals of our cities, individually and
        collectively, so that planning of a more comprehensive nature and
        at a higher level of excellence will guide the destinies of our
        cities and the lives of the people in them" (p. 292).
        
               As man was freed more and more from manual and even
        administrative tasks, he could turn toward enhancing his own life
        and the lives of others.  Helping people to do so was a basic
        duty of continuing education, or lifelong learning.  The
        knowledge source for these new skills was suggested by the
        National Commission on Technology, Automation, ad Economic
        Progress:  "Much of this technology will be derived from the
        social sciences and the humanities as well as the physical and
        biological sciences.  It will be concerned with such values as
        individuality, diversity, and decentralization rather than
        conformity, massive organization, and concentration.  It will
        seek to make work more meaningful rather than merely productive"
        (National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic
        Progress, 1966, p. 13).
        
               Malcolm Knowles, through his study in Europe under the
        tutelage of some of the acknowledged masters in adult educational
        theory, and through his own teaching and writing in America,
        assumed leadership of the adult education movement in the United
        States.  His first major publication was Informal Adult Education
        (1951).  He followed this with "The Modern Practice of Adult
        Education" in 1970 (revised in 1980), a text which many adult
        educators cite as the seminal work in adult education in the
        United States.   
        
               Knowles' (1970) basic premise for adult education was,
        "The single most effective teaching device available to a teacher
        is the example of his own behavior."  An adult learning
        experience should be a process of self-directed inquiry, with the
        resources of the teacher, fellow students, and materials being
        available to the learner but not imposed upon him" (p. 14). 
        Knowles believed, "My attitude is that I am sharing my
        experience, training and point of view with you rather than
        imposing them on you" (p. 16).
        
               Knowles (1970) described the phases of the adult learning
        process as follows:
               1.     Establishing a climate and structure;
               2.     Assessing needs and interests;
               3.     Defining purposes and objectives;
               4.     Constructing a design;
               5.     Operating a program;
               6.     Evaluating results (p.  17).
        
               Initially, Knowles (1970) focused as much attention on the
        adult educator as on the adult learner.  He believed the adult
        educator was found in three different phases of the adult
        education process.
        
               At the firing line level there are teachers, group
        leaders, and supervisors.
        1.   Helping learners diagnose their needs for particular
             learning within the scope of a given situation (diagnostic
             function).
        2.   Planning with the learners a sequence of experiences that
             will produce the desired learning (planning function).
        3.   Creating conditions that will cause the learners to want to
             learn (motivational function).
        4.   Selecting the most effective methods and techniques for
             producing the desired learning (methodological function).
        5.   Providing the human and material resources necessary to
             produce the desired learning (resource function).
        6.   Helping learners measure the outcomes of the learning
             experiences (evaluative function) (Knowles, 1980, p.  22).
        
               At the program director level, there are the committee
        chairmen, training directors, and deans who are responsible for: 
        1.   Assessing the individual, institutional, and societal needs
             for adult learning relevant to their organizational settings
             (diagnostic function).
        2.   Establishing and managing an organizational structure for
             the effective development and operation of an adult
             education program (organizational function).
        3.   Formulating objectives to meet the assessed needs and
             designing a program of activities to achieve these           
             objectives (planning function).
        4.   Instituting and supervising those procedures required for
             the effective operation of a program including recruiting
             and training leaders and teachers, managing facilities and
             administrative processes, recruiting students, financing and 
             interpreting (administrative and training function).
        5.   Assessing program effectiveness (evaluative function)
             (Knowles, 1980, p.  22).
        
               At the professional leadership level, there are small
        groups of career adult educators who are:
        1.     Responsible for developing new knowledge.
        2.     Preparing materials.
        3.     Inventing new techniques.
        4.     Providing leadership for coordinating organizations.
        5.     Training adult education workers.
        6.     Promoting the further development of adult education 
             (Knowles, 1980, p.  22).
        
               Overstreet (1949) concurred with Knowles by describing
        what he believed were the needs and goals of the individual as:
        1.   The prevention of obsolescence.
        2.   The development of the attitude that learning is a life-long
             process and to acquire the skills of self-directed learning.
        3.   The achievement of a complete self-identity through the
             development of their full potentialities.
        4.   The development to maturity - a maturing person.  
        
               He diagrammed the process of the human being moving from
        immaturity to maturity this way.  
        
                      DIMENSIONS OF MATURATION
        
               FROM                              TOWARD
        
        1.  Dependence                          Autonomy
        2.  Passivity                           Activity
        3.  Subjectivity                        Objectivity
        4.  Ignorance                           Enlightenment
        5.  Small abilities                     Large abilities
        6.  Few responsibilities                Many responsibilities 
        7.  Narrow Interests                    Broad interests
        8.  Selfishness                         Altruism
        9.  Self-rejection                      Self-acceptance
        10.  Amorphous self-identity            Integrated self-identity
        11.  Focus on particulars               Focus on principles
        12.  Superficial concerns               Deep concerns
        13.  Imitation                          Originality
        14.  Need for conformity                Tolerance for Ambiguity
        15.  Impulsiveness                      Rationality
        
               This chart emphasized the systematic development of the
        human being from a position of dependence toward independence,
        from a being incapable of taking care of himself, to a mature
        individual capable of functioning in the world without "mommy and
        daddy."  Realizing that most adults had completed this
        progression, the adult educator must take into consideration the
        independence and other characteristics which define the mature
        adult human being.  
        
               Erik Erikson (1950) described this same progression, but
        with the human being changing for amorphous self-identity toward
        integrated self-identity.  He proposed these developmental
        stages. 
        a.     Oral-sensory - basic issue is trust vs.  mistrust.
        b.     Muscular-anal - basic issue is autonomy vs.  shame.
        c.     Locomotion-genital - basic issue is initiative vs.  guilt.
        d.     Latency - basic issue is industry vs.  infecundity.
        e.     Puberty and adolescence - basic issue is identity vs.      
               role confusion.
        f.     Young adulthood - basic issue is intimacy vs.  isolation.
        g.     Adulthood - basic issue is generativity vs.  stagnation.
        h.     Maturity - basic issue is ego-integrity vs.  despair (p.   
               273)
        
               According to both psychologists, the child develops toward
        adulthood through a progression of stages that are lifelong in
        duration.  The implication for the adult educator, Knowles (1970)
        believed was that to provide a learning experience for the mature
        adult learner which discounts the adult's full development was
        both demeaning and would eventually result in the learner
        withdrawing from it (p.  44).  
