                      6.  SUPERVISION AND PROBLEM SOLVING.
        
             Supervision and managing employees is the job of making
        decisions-decisions about hiring new employees, about promotions,
        about training, about equipment, about productivity, about
        communications, about disciplining, about morale, and so on. 
        Supervisors are paid primarily for one thing and that is to make
        sound decisions.  To do an effective job, the supervisor needs to
        make good decisions because making good ones is the essence of
        good supervision and the key to success as a supervisor.
        
             Some supervisors make decisions based purely on reason,
        logic, what makes sense.  These individuals do not often take
        employees' individual feelings into consideration, and at times,
        this can lead to problems.  His or her main concern is to get the
        job done and taking into feelings into account gets in the way.
        
             On the other extreme is the supervisor who takes weeks to
        decide an answer that should have taken a few hours at most.  He
        never gets excited, puts off taking action, and tells his or her
        employees that things will work out OK in a few days. 
        
             Keirsey and Bates (1984) described these two different
        temperaments as the Thinking and Feeling personality types.  The
        T supervisor uses logic and reason and does not consider peoples'
        feelings in making a decision; the F type considers feelings in
        lieu of logic and reason, but is often inept in being able to
        make a decision in a timely fashion.  
        
             Between these two extremes is the middle-of-the-road
        supervisor who hesitates to makes decisions that will upset
        anyone.  He or she wants to be everyone's friend and cannot bring
        him or herself to make a decision that will be against anyone's
        wishes.  This type of supervisor gives answers that are watered-
        down compromises that seldom upset others and seldom solve any
        problems.
        
             There is also the "research" type supervisor who refuses to
        make a decision until all facts are thoroughly reviewed. 
        Sometimes the facts are not all available so decisions are not
        made, or it takes so long to get "all the facts" that the
        opportunity to take action has passed.  There are worriers who
        agonize over every decision, and there are the shy and timid
        types who never have the courage to face a problem head on. 
        There are the one-of-a-kind type that cause most of the
        difficulties that supervisors experience by not considering
        enough facts and acting indiscriminately.
        
             Effective decision making is the first step in problem
        solving.  There are five steps in the traditional problem solving
        process.  Many individuals solve problems so unconsciously they
        are not aware that the steps even exist.  These steps are:
             1.   Accurately define what the problem is;
             2.   Brainstorm for solutions, choices, options;
             3.   Pick the solution, choice, or option which seems to be
                  the best;
             4.   Implement the solution, choice, or option;
             5.   Evaluate to see if it worked.
        
             If a supervisor is not alert for problems, problems will
        certainly arise.  Not clearly defining the problem can lead to a
        lot of energy being squandered on actions which produce no
        meaningful results.  Systematically analyzing the problem and
        then brainstorming for options can lead to more effective
        management of problem-laden situations.  Solving the problem once
        a solution, choice, or option is picked is, in fact, the easiest
        part of the entire process.  
        
             Can brainstorming really work?  Yes, because the "ten-heads-
        are-better-than-one" approach can provide many solutions not
        available to the single problem solver.  Such an activity does
        not constrict the supervisor to thinking barriers which limit
        effective action.  
             
             deBono (1985) teaches an entire thinking technology which
        presents new and unique ways to approach thinking related to
        problem solving.  His PMI thinking tool is "so simple" DeBono
        maintains that it is almost unlearnable because everyone thinks
        he or she uses it anyway.  The letters are chosen to give a
        nicely pronounceable abbreviation so that individuals can ask
        themselves or others, to "do a PMI."  
             P    stands for Plus or the good points. 
             M    stands for Minus or the bad points.
             I    stands for Interesting or the interesting points.
        
             The PMI is an attention-directing tool.  In doing a PMI the
        individual deliberately directs his or her attention first toward
        the Plus points, then toward the Minus points, and finally toward
        the Interesting points.  This is done in a very deliberate and
        disciplined manner over a period of about 2-3 minutes in all.  
        
             debono (1985) used this example to demonstrate the PMI
        method with a group of educators.  He asked a group of 30
        students aged 10-12 to tell him what they thought of the idea of
        each of them receiving $5 a week just for going to school.  Most
        loved the idea and began to tell him what they would do with the
        money.  All of them loved the idea.  debono then explained the
        PMI thinking method and asked them to use it in regard to the $5
        suggestion.  At the end of the exercise the class was asked again
        if they liked the idea.  Whereas 30 out of 30 liked it at first,
        now 29 out of 30 had completely reversed their view and now
        disliked the idea.  What deBono noted was that using this very
        simple scanning tool, used by the youngsters themselves, had
        brought about change.  
        
             In Practical Thinking, deBono (1971) wrote that "everyday
        thinking is what fills in the time when you are neither asleep
        nor dead.  Just as you notice a car engine only when it is not
        running smoothly, so you become aware of everyday thinking when
        it is not running smoothly."  deBono regarded thinking as a skill
        rather than a gift and maintained accepting this notion was the
        first step towards doing something to improve the skill. 
        
             deBono (1976) suggested that an individual must learn to
        think in order to be an effective problem solver.  He defined
        thinking as "the deliberate exploration of experience for a
        purpose," and that purpose may be understanding, decision-making,
        planning, problem solving, judgement, action, and so on.
        
             Sometimes, deBono (1970) hypothesized, lateral thinking is
        necessary to solve new and unique problems.  He defined this type
        of thinking as being concerned with the generation of ideas.  He
        described lateral thinking as different than vertical thinking
        which moves forward by sequential steps each of which must be
        justified.  Lateral thinking is not a substitute for vertical
        thinking, but both are required and complementary.  Lateral
        thinking is generative; vertical thinking is selective. 
        Supervisors need to utilize both types if they are to be
        effective in problem solving.  In defining the need for the use
        of lateral thinking, deBono wrote:
        
             The purpose of thinking is to collect information and to
             make the best possible use of it.  Because of the way the
             mind works to create fixed concept patterns we cannot make
             the best use of new information unless we have some means
             for restructuring the old patterns and bringing them up to
             date.  Our traditional methods of thinking teach us how to
             refine such patterns and establish their validity.  But we
             shall always make less than the best use of available
             information unless we know how to create new patterns and
             escape with providing or developing concept patterns. 
             Vertical thinking is concerned with proving or developing
             concept patterns.  Lateral thinking is concerned with
             restructuring such patterns (insight) and provoking new ones
             (creativity).  Lateral and vertical thinking are
             complementary.  Skill in both (for supervisors) is
             necessary.  Yet the emphasis in education and business has
             always been exclusively on vertical thinking.  The need for
             lateral thinking arises from the limitations of the behavior
             of the mind as a self-maximizing memory system (p. 13).  
        
             Our traditional YES/NO thinking system, deBono (1972) wrote
        is immensely effective in the second stage of thinking: that is
        in making the best use of fixed ideas.  Unfortunately the system
        is not much use in the first stage of thinking: that is the
        perception stage which involves creating new ideas and new ways
        of looking at things.  Just as NO is the basic tool of logical
        thinking so a new word PO is suggested as the basic tool for the
        first stage of thinking.  Logical YES/NO thinking is based on
        judgement, but PO thinking is based on movement.  Both types of
        thinking are necessary.  But we must realize that logic is
        unlikely to solve those problems which need a new idea for their
        solution.  
        
             PO is a new word.  It is a magic word.  "It will do all you
        want it to do," deBono (1972) wrote, "if you believe in it.  As
        with all magic, the more you believe the better it works.  The
        more you invest in it, the more you get out of it.  But there is
        no dogma you have to accept before you can use PO.  It is a
        simple word and all you have to believe in is its use.  The use
        of PO can easily be described as a prompt to use when a problem
        arises.  For instance: Employees are preparing to form a union to
        support them in addressing grievances against the company.  The
        supervisor invokes PO:  What are the strategies necessary for the
        organization to undertake to assist the employees in forming
        their union?
        
             PO, deBono (1972) wrote, is a deliberately invented thinking
        tool.  PO is:
             1.   A skill which can be learned and practised just as an
                  individual learns to drive a car, cook, or play golf. 
                  It is like a reverse gear in a car.  Without a reverse
                  gear in a car the individual can get blocked in the
                  first blind alley you come to.  Without PO in our
                  thinking process, unless the individual is following a
                  well-known circular track leading nowhere.  
             2.   A change tool directly concerned with new ideas, new
                  approaches, and the escape from concept prisons.  
             3.   A thinking tool that is as basic to creative thinking
                  as NO is to logical thinking.  
             4.   A tool that can unlock latent creative reserve.  Most
                  people are unable to use their creative reserves,
                  because there is no key with which to unlock the door
                  that has been locked by traditional educational
                  rigidity.
             5.   A laxative for those who have a constipated minds that
                  they wish to be free.  
             6.   Directly related to humor because the individual can go
                  beyond the obvious to seek new ways of looking at
                  things.  The three intellectual ages of man could be
                  described as follows:
                  0 - 5     years: the age of WHY?
                  5 - 10    years: the age of WHY NOT?
                  10- 75 +  years: the age of BECAUSE?
             7.   Acts to keep the age of WHY NOT going alongside the age
                  of BECAUSE which society does need in order to have
                  competence.  In adults, PO can serve to resurrect the
                  child's creative way of looking at things.
             8.   Perfectly reasonable - but completely illogical.  We
                  have been trained to believe that the absence of logic
                  is chaos, confusion, and even madness, but it is not. 
                  PO is certainly illogical, but nevertheless, very
                  reasonable.  We have been brainwashed over the ages to
                  believe that logic is the only way of handling ideas in
                  order to reach a useful result.  
             9.   Acts to break down established patterns, and introduce
                  discontinuity.  Its main function is to act as an anti-
                  arrogance and anti-dogmatism device.
             10.  Accepted or rejected by each individual dependent upon
                  each's needs (pp. 23-25).  
        
             In a later text, deBono (1985) wrote how even individuals
        who understand vertical, lateral, PO, and other types of thinking
        processes he wrote about can get stuck.  He described a method
        called the Six Thinking Hats to assist individuals to move from
        one method of thinking to another.  "Putting on" a hat focuses
        thinking.  "Switching hats" redirects thinking.  With the
        different parts of the thinking process thus clearly defined,
        discussion between individuals can be better focused and more
        productive.  
        
             What are the hats?  deBono described them as such:
                  1.   WHITE:    facts, figures, and objective
                                 information.
                  2.   RED:      emotions and feelings.
                  3.   BLACK:    logical negative thoughts.
                  4.   YELLOW:   positive constructive thoughts.
                  5.   GREEN:    creativity and ideas.
                  6.   BLUE:     control of the other hats and thinking
                                 steps.
        
             If dealing with individuals, a supervisor can arrest
        thinking which is blocking communication, tangential, or
        destructive by simply defining what type of thinking is taking
        place between the supervisor and the employee.  This system makes
        others' thinking not a threat but just different.
        
             In 1991, deBono completed the series on thinking by
        proposing the notion of Six Action Shoes to describe how certain
        thinking patterns resulted in actions which the individual can
        and does invoke as a result of the cerebral work.  
        
             What are the action shoes?  deBono described them as
        follows:
        
        1.   NAVY SHOES:         Navy action mode is for routine
                                 behavior.  Select the appropriate
                                 routine, switch into the routine, and
                                 carry through the routine as perfectly
                                 as you can.    
        
        2.   GREY SNEAKERS:      Grey sneaker action mode is for
                                 collecting information and thinking
                                 about it.
        
        3.   BROWN BROGUES:      Brown brogue action mode is for
                                 emphasizing pragmatism and practicality. 
                                 It is a matter of doing what can be
                                 done.
        
        4.   ORANGE BOOTS:       Orange gumboot action mode has to do
                                 with emergencies, crises, and dangerous
                                 situations.  When situations are
                                 unstable, unpredictable, and likely to
                                 get worse, urgent action is required.
        
        5.   PINK SLIPPERS:      Pink slipper action mode is concerned
                                 with human caring, with sympathy,
                                 compassion, and help.
        
        6.   PURPLE BOOTS:       Purple riding boot action mode has to do
                                 with authority and playing out an
                                 official role.  The person using the
                                 purple riding boot action mode is not
                                 acting as a normal person but through an
                                 official role that he or she is
                                 performing.
        
             Supervisors must possess a willing-to-learn approach to
        making sound managerial decisions.  Using strategies such as
        these suggested by deBono can make the learning process much
        easier for the supervisor who wants to improve his or her ability
        to make effective decisions and solve problems.  The scope of
        this paper does not permit a more in-depth discussion of deBono's
        CoRT Thinking System.  However, from what was described above,
        the supervisor who utilizes these thinking techniques in problem
        solving will certainly be much better prepared to effectively
        discharge this aspect of his or her duties.
        
             Avoiding decisions is not uncommon for people and especially
        for supervisors who do not want to make a decision because they
        do not want to face the consequences.  If a supervisor finds him
        or herself in this situation, an effective way to overcome this
        condition is to ask the following questions to determine if any
        of these are the reasons for postponing it:
             1.   You decide there aren't enough facts to make the
                  decision.  Therefore, you decide to postpone making it
                  until you get all the information.
             2.   You decide that it is not important enough to bother
                  with--then you assign it to a subordinate to make.
             3.   You assign the problem to a committee to decide.  This
                  will probably delay the decision indefinitely.
             4.   You undertake research on the topic to find out how
                  such a problem was previously solved.  This could cause
                  the decision to be put off for months.
             5.   You postpone making the decision because of "illness"
                  or a "more pressing problem."
             6.   You decide that you don't have the authority to make
                  the decision and that it should be made by someone
                  else. 
             7.   You decide to wait until next week when you will have
                  more time to devote to giving the matter your undivided
                  attention.  Next week, of course, seldom comes (George,
                  1970, p. 87).
        
             Supervisors ducking the decision making process will
        eventually doom themselves to failure.  There is no way to
        supervise effectively and not make decisions that result in some
        consequence.
        
             Robbins (1985) maintained that "every action produces some
        outcome.  There is no such thing as failure.  If an action does
        not produce the outcome you want, analyze what you got from your
        initial action, modify your behavior, and produce some new
        action.  Continue doing this until you produce the outcome you
        want.  See, there is not such thing as failure.  There is only a
        failure to act."    
        
             The rule to avoid making decisions is to understand yourself
        and postpone making decisions only for good sound reasons. 
        Putting a decision into effect, watching it produce the results, 
        and seeing the results move the organization forward toward its
        goal is the paramount reason for the supervisor to act.  
        
             Some practical tips on making sound decisions are:
        
             1.   Decide whether the decision is a big or small one.  If
                  it is a big problem, give it full treatment. Weigh all
                  aspects of it carefully.  Big problems demand all the
                  time, attention, and skill that the supervisor can give
                  it.  Little problems don't deserve the trappings of a
                  "summit conference."  Debating on whether or not to
                  stop for a coffee break at 10 or 10:15 am is one way to
                  stifle any forward progress.
        
             2.   Don't make snap decisions.  Take time to get the facts
                  and then analyze them carefully.
        
             3.   Rely on established company policy and practices where
                  possible.  If company policy is to suspend an employee
                  found drinking on the job, this is the answer if you
                  face such a problem.
        
             4.   Seek the help of others when you are in doubt.  Ask
                  other people what they think, especially people who are
                  well informed and whose judgement you trust.
        
             5.   Avoid crisis decisions.  Most of the time, decisions do
                  not need to be made spontaneously.  Ask yourself when
                  the decision has to be made.  Then utilize the time
                  available to make the best decisions.  If there is a
                  crisis, remember that you are the "boss" and your
                  employees are looking to you for a decision.
        
             6.   If a decision has to be made, make it.  Don't put off
                  making a needed decision.  This will only make work
                  pile up even higher.
        
             7.   Don't brood over a decision once action has been taken. 
                  Evaluation, yes; brooding, no.  Poor decisions are made
                  by many people every day, from the President of the
                  United States on down.  As consolation, we seldom make
                  a decision that is really wrong.  In most cases, we
                  make decisions that are effective or ineffective.  Once
                  you've put a decision into effect, worrying about it
                  won't make it any better or worse.  Learn from it.
                  Produce new action.  Then learn from it.  Learn from
                  it.  Produce new action.  This is the way to
                  effectively make decisions that in the end, produce the
                  results that you want and solve the problems (George,
                  1979, p. 91).
        
             Using the deBono thinking methods, the strategies suggested
        by George, and then making decisions that are based upon the most
        realistic appraisal of what the situation is and demands can save
        the supervisor many agonizing moments in dispatching his or her
        duties.  What makes supervision exciting is not the fact that
        problems exist and must be solved causing decisions to be made,
        but once they are, not just the supervisor, the employees, but
        the entire organization benefits from the energy expended.
        
