                  12.  THE WORK ETHIC AS A MOTIVATION FACTOR.  
             
             The American Constitution is a secular document, shaped by
        secular political philosophers, but sanctified with popular
        attitudes derived from religion, especially from the Protestant
        Work Ethic (PWE).  This impulse imbued the Constitution with the
        idea of "bettering oneself" and of economic progress, and made it
        the cornerstone of an American civil religion that drives the
        economic, political, educational, industrial, and religious
        activities of a nation.  The PWE is a term that is used to
        describe this principle in America (Kristol, 1987).  Overman
        (1983) supported this position.  He researched a collection of
        commentary on work and play, including sources spanning some
        three centuries of American history.  He noted that the work
        ethic, in its various forms and shades, perceptibly provided the
        leitmotif for the American experience in work and play, and was
        an earlier form of defining work ethic and other types of
        motivation. 
        
             In order to better understand the PWE as a motivating factor
        in humans, research in many diverse areas conducted by educators,
        businesses, and politicians describes how it enhanced the
        development of the civilization as we know it, and the way
        individuals fit into it via their own work ethic.    
        
             Early Americans were credited with holding the Protestant
        work ethic, a set of work-related beliefs involving the traits of
        industriousness, individualism, ascetism, community involvement,
        and an overall valuing of work as the most worthwhile way to
        spend one's time.  Tang (1988) found that the American work ethic
        today is not the same as it was in early America.  In order to
        examine whether the American work ethic today was undergoing a
        significant change, he studied the major characteristics of
        individuals who endorsed the Protestant work ethic.  He
        investigated the relationships between the Protestant work ethic
        and some demographic variables in a sample of 689 subjects in the
        middle Tennessee area.  Subjects completed a 25-page
        questionnaire which included the Mirels-Garrett Protestant Work
        Ethic Scale and items measuring selected demographic variables. 
        The results revealed that the PWE endorsement was positively
        related to Republican Party identification and negatively related
        to age, educational level, employment status, annual income
        level, and marital status.   
        
             Hedges (1983) examined indicators that have been used to
        assess job commitment: statistical series on absence from work;
        quits; working part time by choice (phenomena generally
        associated with weak commitment); and multiple job-holding and
        overtime (often associated with strong commitment).  He found
        that the those who worked full time correlated highest with self-
        esteem, and a propensity to achieve to the fullest, and those who
        worked part-time were significantly lower on self-esteem and
        fulfillment.
        
             Super (1982) presented a model for examining the role of
        work.  He discovered the importance of the work ethic and the
        role of work in meeting people's needs.  His results identified
        in the Work Importance Study identified commitment,
        participation, and knowledge as the basic motivating components
        of work or other life-career roles. 
        
             Stanton (1983) reviewed the decline in productivity and
        motivation, theories of work motivation, and changes in the work
        ethic and work attitudes in America.  He recommended the
        revitalization of five essentials of sound management:
        recruitment and selection, training and development, performance
        appraisal, supervision, and compensation.  He believed that the
        PWE was not dead, but dormant, due to the evolutionary changes
        taking place in the economic environment in America and the
        world.  
        
             Grant (1982) examined possible reasons for declining
        employee motivation and found these: greater instability and
        diversity of values; more guaranteed rewards; inability of
        rewards to satisfy emerging needs; disappearing work ethic;
        reduced costs of failure; rising income and progressive taxation;
        more group production and problem solving; decreased employee
        loyalty; less supervisory power; shorter time perspectives.  He
        concluded that the PWE was not in demise but was shifting its
        form and beginning to evolve into a 21st century structure.
        
             Maywood (1982) cited three studies which indicated that
        today's worker is searching for personal significance in his/her
        job.  He considered this problem: what is the role of vocational
        education in helping our society to build and maintain a
        reasonable work ethic?  No definitive answers were discovered,
        but he indicated that the work ethic was not in decline but in
        flux in America for a variety of reasons like the changing
        economic structure, the advent of the information age, and new
        and better forms of management which have facilitated
        participatory management in the organizations worldwide.  
        
             In Canada, Maguire (1982) described the development of an
        instrument to measure high school students' opinions toward the
        world of work and the results of administering the 75-item
        questionnaire to 1,035 students in Alberta.  He showed their
        opinions supportive of the traditional PWE.  He indicated his
        results tended to be consistent with those presented in
        literature.  
        
             Thomas (1982) surveyed 50 graduate students in
        rehabilitation counseling regarding their attitudes toward the
        Protestant Work Ethic (PWE).  He found the students more likely
        to endorse those aspects of the PWE reflecting the intrinsic
        value of work were those dealing with the condition of people
        rather than those concerned with their earnings, social status,
        and advancement for themselves.  
        
             In studying the effects of money and status on motivation,
        Tang and Gilbert (1992) found that money significantly impacted
        peoples' motivation, behavior, and performance.  Their study was
        conducted to further validate and explore the Money Ethic Scale
        (MES), an instrument developed to examine the meaning of money,
        in a sample of mental health workers in Tennessee.  It examined
        mental health workers' (N=155) attitudes toward money, as
        measured by the MES, exploring how those attitudes related to
        demographic, personality, and organizational variables.  The
        results of separate step-wise multiple regression analyses for
        the six factors of the MES scale (money is good, money is evil,
        money represents achievement, money represents respect, money
        represents freedom/power, and "I budget my money carefully")
        showed that males tended to feel more strongly that money
        represented respect, freedom, and power than did females.  The
        respect factor was also associated with a Type A personality. 
        Respondents who endorsed the Protestant Work Ethic tended to
        think that money represented achievement and that money was good. 
        Respondents who claimed that they budgeted their money carefully
        tended to have high self-esteem, Type A personalities, be older,
        have low organizational stress, and have low incomes.  Intrinsic
        job satisfaction was related to the attitude that money
        represented freedom and power, whereas extrinsic job satisfaction
        was related to the notion than money is not evil.  
        
             In a separate study, Tang (1991) suggested that the PWE is a
        multidimensional concept.  The concept of PWE has been examined
        in many different samples and societies.  Little research has
        been done concerning the factor structure of the PWE scale in a
        Chinese sample.  He examined the factor structure of the PWE
        scale in a sample of medical students (N=115) in Taiwan.  The
        19-item PWE scale was administered to these students.  The
        subjects were asked to rate each item on a 7-point scale.  Data
        were subjected to principal components factor analysis.  Four
        factors were identified as PWE behaviors: hard work, internal
        motive, asceticism, and leisure.  The factors of hard work,
        asceticism, and leisure were closely related to three factors
        revealed in Furham's previous research.  However, factors such as
        religion and morality and independence from others were not found
        in this study.  This was caused by the fact that seven measures
        of the PWE were used in Furham's research and only one measure
        was used in this study.  He reported that future research may
        compare the endorsement of the PWE in different groups and
        populations in the same or different cultures or societies.       
        
             One answer to rekindling the PWE in the American work place
        was presented by Levitan (1991).  He explored the role of public
        jobs programs in the U.S. economy from the 1930s to the present. 
        He postulated that jobs programs are necessary because they serve
        four separate but overlapping needs: alleviating joblessness,
        hardship, and poverty; helping the economy emerge from recession;
        providing jobs to able-bodied welfare recipients; and producing
        needed services that otherwise are neglected.  He showed that
        jobs programs are necessary even in good economic times so that
        disadvantaged persons can secure employment that the private
        sector will not give them.  He also recounted the problems of
        previous jobs programs, such as insufficient management,
        too-rigid selection processes, unworkable compensation formulas,
        and substitution of federal funds for local government funds, and
        suggests ways to avoid these pitfalls.  Finally, he recommended
        job programs for the 1990s as a way to work out of recession,
        have needed work done, and promote the work ethic as a motivating
        factor to improve the productivity and self-esteem of American
        workers.  
        
             Relating school learning to work can make adolescents take
        school more seriously.  Hamilton (1990) proposed that the one
        mission of schools is to prepare the young to assume work roles.
        Schools were used to teach basic academic material and a work
        ethic that were equally applicable to a wide range of
        occupations.  He cited John Dewey who argued that preparation
        cannot be effective unless it simultaneously addresses immediate
        needs and interests.  Although U.S. vocational schools teach
        job-related knowledge and skills in preparation for employment,
        the German Berufsschule teaches the same lessons after employment
        has started.  The Berufsschule comes about as close as possible
        to integrating instruction in job-related knowledge and skills at
        school and work.  Schools should engage young people in critical
        reflection on their work experience as a means of fostering their
        ability to understand work places as sociotechnical systems and,
        using that understanding, to act constructively to improve them
        and to improve their positions in them.  This is very different
        from seeking the direct transfer of job-specific knowledge and
        skills, general academic subjects, or of problem-solving
        strategies.  Principles for practicing this integration include
        the following: (1) reflection is a process of discovery; (2)
        learners become action-researchers; (3) the social impact of
        technology should be examined; and (4) journals, critical
        incidents, and literature are useful aids to reflection.          
        
        
             Poole (1989) developed an instructional activities guide
        intended to integrate a comprehensive program of instruction in
        employability skills into the local K-12 curriculum in Wisconsin. 
        The nine employability skills taught were the work ethic,
        commitment, communication, interpersonal relationships,
        responsibility, job-seeking and job-getting, reasoning and
        problem-solving, health and safety habits, and personal
        attributes.  The beginning sections explained the document's
        background, listed the employability skills and associated
        competencies, and introduced the instructional activities. 
        Instructional activities followed for each employability skill. 
        In each case, the activities appeared in groups for lower
        elementary, upper elementary, middle-junior high, and high school
        students.  For each activity, materials, procedures, evaluation
        methods, and enrichment activities were suggested.  Materials
        such as checklists, sample letters to employers, sample reward
        stickers, interview questions, puzzles, mystery game clues,
        patterns to be duplicated, and assignment logs were included.  
        
             While concerns grow regarding the possible "decline" of
        America's traditional work ethic, there is a growing interest in
        Japanese economic successes and their work ethic.  Engel (1985)
        compared the work ethics of American and Japanese men.  A
        questionnaire was designed to measure values related to America's
        "Protestant work ethics" and to traditional Japanese work ethics.
        Work Ethic Questionnaires were distributed to samples of 220
        American and 368 Japanese employed men.  T-test comparisons of
        groups resulted in significant differences on 29 of 34 work ethic
        items.  American men were found to place a higher value on
        individualism, independence, and self-sufficiency, and tended to
        believe that education and hard work lead to success.  Japanese
        men were found to place a higher value on group involvement,
        loyalty to employer and country, and large over small
        organizations; and tended to agree with many of the values that
        have been termed "Puritan" or "Protestant work ethic" in America.
        Results were discussed in terms of American and Japanese cultural
        traditions and change.  The data provided evidence that
        "Protestant ethics" are still strong in America, while some
        aspects of traditional Japanese work ethics may be changing. 
        More culturally diverse research was needed, the author
        concluded.  
        
             In order to prepare the future generation of young people
        for work in the 21st century, new strategies will need to be
        implemented by the educational establishment.  Some of these are
        presented in the following studies.
        
             According to a survey of 148 small business employers
        conducted by McCoy and Reed (1991), schools should teach
        youngsters basic math, reading, listening, speaking, and writing
        skills, along with specialized skills needed for technology,
        business, public service, personal service, health, and consumer
        occupations.  Schools should also teach good grooming, healthy
        habits, and the old-fashioned work ethic, meaning that hard work
        will pay dividends in the end.  
        
             McCracken (1990) supported this position.  He maintained
        that although values are the most important outcome for
        vocational education, they are often considered as extraneous. 
        The curriculum should teach and practice the work ethic, further
        egalitarianism and educational unity, and develop an awareness of
        global issues.  
        
             Etlinger (1990) found that minority participation in the
        work force, and by extension in vocational education, was
        becoming increasingly important to the economic welfare of the
        United States.  He described the need for focusing on minority
        issues and concerns in vocational education related to programs,
        students, staff, and research.  He recommended the development of
        role models, funding, and curriculum, and teaching the work ethic
        as part of a regeneration of values that could lead to success in
        the future for an entire generation of disenfranchised minority
        youths.  
        
             Miller (1989) hypothesized that vocational ethics
        instruction is education that develops an enabling work ethic. 
        Small group discussion activities can promote values assessment
        for ethical choices, mediation skills for conflict resolution,
        and reasoning skills for recognizing and solving ethical
        problems.  Miller and Coady (1988) presented a model for teaching
        vocational ethics and helping students develop an enabling work
        ethic.  It concentrated on teaching two main types of skills:
        ethical reasoning skills and mediation skills.  The format of
        instruction included presenting and discussing ethical problems
        as related to the work place.  They maintained that conscious
        teaching of the work ethic could instill in the next generation
        the same ethic.  
        
             Naylor (1988) completed extensive research into this issue. 
        She proposed a new concept, vocational ethics, as an extension of
        what appeared to be the demise of the PWE.  She found that many
        studies described how employers have traditionally agreed on the
        behaviors and attitudes they expect from employees and on the
        security and benefits that they are willing to provide in return. 
        Various factors, including rapid technological advancement and
        increased foreign competition, have changed this.  Today's
        workers generally have less job security than their predecessors. 
        Different employers require different attitudes and behaviors
        from their employees.  These changes made it necessary for
        vocational and career educators to revise their approach to
        preparing students to enter and function in the world of work. 
        This revised approach, which has come to be known as vocational
        ethics, is intended to (1) provide students with a framework for
        recognizing and resolving internal and external ethical conflicts
        and (2) give students the opportunity to develop an enabling work
        ethic.  Vocational ethics instruction is centered around two main
        topics: ethical reasoning skills and mediation skills
        (assertiveness, emphatic listening, principled negotiation, and
        risk taking). 
        
           Studies conducted in the 1970s (Maywood 1982) provided
        evidence that employers have traditionally agreed on the
        behaviors and attitudes they expect from employees and the
        security and benefits that they are willing to provide in return. 
        According to Maywood, employers' rankings of the attributes most
        desired in employees consistently confirm that the most desirable
        employee is one who demonstrates the traditionally valued
        characteristics of reliability, dependability, pride of
        craftsmanship, and willingness to learn and who derives personal
        gratification from a job well done.  Vocational education has
        traditionally responded to this need through instruction on
        appropriate work behaviors and attitudes.  An example of this
        approach is teaching students to exercise integrity and good
        judgment (maintain and demonstrate confidentiality, loyalty, and
        honesty), respect property, and follow company rules (follow
        company policies and procedures and negotiate to resolve
        conflicts) (Lankard 1987).
        
           The transition from an economy based on local agriculture and
        manufacturing markets to a global, information-based economy has
        been accompanied by an increasing orientation toward jobs based
        on mental rather than physical activity.  The following changes
        have especially profound implications for the work place:
             1.   In an attempt to meet increasing foreign competition by
                  improving product quality and productivity, management
                  has begun to encourage and, in many cases, require
                  greater worker participation in decisions affecting
                  both the quality of the work environment and the
                  production process.  According to Wirth (Miller and
                  Coady 1984), this trend has blurred the traditionally
                  sharp demarcation between labor and management.
             2.   The accelerating pace of technological advancement has
                  made it much less likely that workers will hold the
                  same job throughout their working lives, and the
                  increasing economic pressures brought to bear by a
                  global economy have made it far less likely that
                  workers will begin and end their working lives at the
                  same organization (Miller and Coady 1984).
             3.   As organizations adopt different strategies to increase
                  their productivity and improve the quality of their
                  product or service, they adopt the new
                  collaboration-based model of structuring the work place
                  to different degrees.  Sometimes an organization will
                  even adopt the model to varying degrees in different
                  facets of its operations.  One example cited by Wirth
                  (Miller and Coady 1984) is Anheuser-Busch, which has
                  plants based on both the traditional and collaborative
                  models.
        
             These two emerging trends--the blurring of the traditional
        sharp demarcations between the rights and responsibilities of
        labor and management and rapid technological and economic change,
        have resulted in reduced job security.  Jennings stated that
        "sometimes the economy, the high-tech and service sector-oriented
        kind of economy of the future, may be healthy as a whole
        precisely by virtue of an extremely and rapidly fluctuating job
        market" (Miller and Coady 1984, p. 17).  As job security
        decreases and as job restructuring and career change become more
        widespread, vocational educators charged with preparing students
        to enter and function in the world of work must bear the
        additional responsibility of equipping students with the thinking
        and negotiating skills necessary to manage their own career
        development.
        
             A second result of the changes in the work place is that
        different employers have begun requiring and expecting different
        attitudes and behaviors from their employees.  According to
        Miller and Coady (1986), as early as 1982, U.S. companies were
        beginning to differ with regard to the value themes they
        emphasize; hence their conclusion that students being prepared
        for the post-industrial work place must be made aware that (1) no
        one set of values may be assumed to be held in equal value by all
        organizations at all times and that (2) employers may not be "the
        single source of guiding work values in all work contexts"
        (Miller and Coady 1986, p. 5).
        
             To distinguish between work maturity, work ethic, and
        vocational ethics, the term "work maturity skills" is defined as
        the set of attitudes and behaviors; punctuality, honesty,
        dependability, taking pride in one's work that has traditionally
        been expected of employees (Lankard 1987).
        
             According to Miller and Coady (1986), the term "work ethic"
        refers to the "beliefs, values, and principles that guide the way
        individuals interpret and act upon their job rights and
        responsibilities within the work context at any given time"  (p.
        5).  In his discussion of changing attitudes toward work, Maywood
        (1982) defined the "Protestant work ethic" as the view that
        humans have a moral duty to work diligently, regardless of their
        station in life, and that by doing so they can reap societal
        regard and the personal reward of knowing that a job has been
        well done.  This Protestant work ethic has, according to Maywood,
        Jennings, Wirth, and others, largely shaped the traditional
        approach to teaching students about appropriate work attitudes
        and behaviors.
        
             Miller and Coady (1986) pointed out that, as innovation,
        flexibility, and collaborative efforts are accepted on an
        increasingly wider scale, the way in which many of these values
        (for example, punctuality) are viewed will differ dramatically
        from employer to employer.  Vocational educators and career
        counselors will have to focus less on teaching a set of
        universally accepted skills and values (such as those associated
        with the PWE) and more on equipping students with the
        higher-order decision-making and problem-solving skills that they
        will need to cope with increased individual responsibility for
        shaping their work environments.  In many respects, this shift
        away from specifics to higher-order and more generalizable skills
        parallels the movement away from job-specific to transferable
        skills that is occurring in many vocational programs.
        
             This revised approach to preparing students to enter and
        function in the world of work has come to be known as "vocational
        ethics."  The use of the word "ethics" here should not be
        interpreted in its general sense of a theory or system of moral
        values.  The definition of vocational ethics offered by Jennings,
        "the rights of a worker as well as the rights that management
        demands of a worker and what a worker demands reciprocally"
        (Miller and Coady 1986, p. 67) makes it clear that ethics in this
        context has a narrower scope that is perhaps closer in meaning to
        "professional ethics."   
        
             Miller and Coady (1986) defined the purpose of vocational
        ethics as being to (1) provide students with a framework for
        recognizing and resolving ethical conflicts within themselves,
        with others, and with their environment in such a way as to
        promote individual job satisfaction and continuous and productive
        employment, and (2) give students the opportunity to develop an
        enabling work ethic (p. 5).
        
             This viewpoint is reinforced by Copa et al. (1985).  One of
        the purposes they identified for vocational education is to
        "socialize individuals to manage the work aspects of their lives
        in a way that is to their benefit and that of the larger
        community"  (p. 7-7).  Dimensions of this role include the
        relation of work to community, relation of self to work, and
        relation of work to other facets of an individual's life.
        
             Miller and Coady outlined strategies and materials for use
        in teaching vocational ethics and helping students develop more
        individual responsibility through (1) overt instruction and (2)
        indirect instruction (also referred to as the "hidden
        curriculum").  Overt vocational ethics instruction is centered
        around two main topics: ethical reasoning skills (also termed
        values assessment criteria) and mediation skills.
        
             Six values assessment criteria provide students with the
        decision-making tools needed to make a comprehensive evaluation
        of options available when they are confronted with an ethical
        dilemma: reciprocity, consistency, coherence, comprehensiveness,
        adequacy, and duration.  The concept of reciprocity focuses on
        the impact of a decision on the feelings and situation of those
        affected by it, consistency refers to the congruity of a decision
        across situations and over time, coherence focuses on the
        interrelationship of the people affected by a decision and their
        relationship to the larger environment, comprehensiveness focuses
        on the implications of a course of action if everyone in a given
        environment were to adopt the same course of action, adequacy
        refers to whether an action satisfactorily addresses all aspects
        of a given problem, and duration considers the impact of a
        decision over the long term.  The criteria help students consider
        the direct and indirect consequences of a decision in a manner
        that is both comprehensive and non-moralizing (Miller and Coady
        1986).
        
             The following mediation skills are intended to enable
        students to implement their decisions successfully. 
             ASSERTIVENESS.  The ability to stand up for one's rights
             without infringing upon those of others by using such
             techniques as "I-language"; assertive body language;
             sensitivity to such factors as location, timing,
             relationships, and frequency when making assertive
             statements; giving and appropriately receiving positive and
             negative feedback; conversation skills such as open-ended
             questions, self-disclosing statements, and process
             observation. 
             EMPATHIC LISTENING.  The ability to give verbal feedback
             demonstrating an understanding of the emotional and
             intellectual content of others' communications, recognize
             messages conveyed through facial expressions and body
             language, recognize when conflicting messages are being
             conveyed, respond to others with compatible verbal and body
             language so as to promote interpersonal understanding,
             empathize with the personal experiences expressed by others,
             and make statements identifying the feelings and attitudes
             being expressed by others. 
             PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATION.  The ability to respond to issues
             rather than the personalities of those involved in
             negotiations, identify the underlying interests of those
             involved in the negotiation process, determine the extent to
             which the stated positions and underlying interests of
             individuals involved in the negotiation process are
             compatible, generate a variety of possible solutions to a
             given problem before entering into the negotiation process,
             and develop and use objective and fair standards to obtain a
             negotiated statement. 
             RISK TAKING.  The ability to recognize one's own value
             hierarchy; estimate one's chances of success or failure
             relative to a number of courses of action involving risk;
             understand the influence of deprivation and oversufficiency
             in relation to one's personal values; understand and predict
             the consequences of success and failure in a given
             decision-making process; understand the influence of one's
             attributions of the causes of one's past failures and
             successes on future risk-taking behaviors; understand
             expected outcomes of win-win, win-lose, and lose-lose
             situations; and understand the influence of group members on
             one another in making group decisions involving risk (Miller
             and Coady 1986).
        
             Miller and Coady emphasized that the hidden curriculum, that
        is, the relationship between the authority figure (teacher) and
        those charged with carrying out tasks (students), is equally, if
        not more, important in helping students develop more individual
        responsibility and the skills required to develop an enabling
        work ethic.  They pointed out the pitfalls of such policies as
        enforcing mandatory attendance, not enforcing deadlines,
        emphasizing rote learning, measuring material retained versus
        concepts mastered, focusing exclusively on "final products" in
        grading, developing meaningless rewards and punishments, keeping
        interpersonal contact to a minimum, and settling conflicts in
        private.  Thus, structuring vocational classrooms in accordance
        with a more democratic, collaborative model provides yet another
        opportunity for vocational educators to help their students
        develop a greater appreciation of the consequences of their
        attitudes and behaviors and thus assume more individual
        responsibility for them.
        
             Summarizing the research on the PWE, the following
        characteristics were discovered:
             1.   PWE was positively related to Republican Party
                  identification and negatively related to age,
                  educational level, employment status, annual income
                  level, and marital status.   
             2.   Those who worked full time correlated highest with
                  self-esteem, and a propensity to achieve to the
                  fullest.  
             3.   Results of the Work Importance Study identified
                  commitment, participation, and knowledge as the basic
                  motivating components of work or other life-career
                  roles. 
             4.   The PWE was not dead, but dormant, due to the
                  evolutionary changes taking place in the economic
                  environment in America and the world.  
             5.   The work ethic was not in decline but in flux in
                  America for a variety of reasons.
             6.   Students most likely to endorse those aspects of the
                  PWE reflecting the intrinsic value of work were those
                  dealing with the condition of people rather than those
                  concerned with their earnings, social status, and
                  advancement for themselves.  
             7.   Intrinsic job satisfaction was related to the attitude
                  that money represented freedom/power, whereas extrinsic
                  job satisfaction was related to the notion than money
                  is not evil.
             8.   Four factors were identified as PWE behaviors: hard
                  work, internal motive, asceticism, and leisure.  The
                  factors of hard work, asceticism, and leisure were also
                  present in those who demonstrated a strong PWE.
             9.   In the 1990's schools should engage young people in
                  critical reflection on their work experience as a means
                  of fostering their ability to understand work places as
                  sociotechnical systems and, using that understanding,
                  to act constructively to improve them and to improve
                  their positions in them.
             10.  The nine employability skills that need to be taught in
                  1990's schools are the work ethic, commitment,
                  communication, interpersonal relationships,
                  responsibility, job-seeking and job-getting, reasoning
                  and problem-solving, health and safety habits, and
                  personal attributes.
             11.  Schools should teach youngsters basic math, reading,
                  listening, speaking, and writing skills, along with
                  specialized skills needed for technology, business,
                  public service, personal service, health, and consumer
                  occupations.  Schools should also teach good grooming,
                  healthy habits, and the old-fashioned work ethic,
                  meaning that hard work will pay dividends in the end.
             12.  Vocational ethics instruction supports education that
                  develops an enabling work ethic.  Small group
                  discussion activities can promote values assessment for
                  ethical choices, mediation skills for conflict
                  resolution, and reasoning skills for recognizing and
                  solving ethical problems.
             13.  Vocational ethics instruction (VEI) is centered around
                  two main topics: ethical reasoning skills and mediation
                  skills (assertiveness, emphatic listening, principled
                  negotiation, and risk taking).  In its conceptual
                  design, VEI is proposed as one solution to the current
                  dilemma facing the work milieu in America. 
