ORGANIZING Seventeen aspects of organizing are described below. ALTERNATIVE ORGANIZING MODELS. Although no real-world organization fits any all-encompassing stereotype, there are several models of organizations that shed light on the alternatives available to the manager, and the management issues associated with each. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What general organizing choices are available to me and how do I decide about using them?" (IV.A) THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZING. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What specific thought process should I follow in making decisions about organizational structure?" (IV.B) ISSUES IN MATRIX ORGANIZATIONS. Matrix structures have been implemented by many organizations in recent years, and considerable attention has been paid to the prevention, diagnosis and cure of those organizations' problems. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can the matrix structure be employed to its greatest advantage?" (IV.C) THE ORGANIZATION AS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING SYSTEM. One view of organizing is that an organization is a system for processing information. Two activities are at the heart of this approach: (1)determining what information is most important for the success of an organization, and (2)developing systems that deliver this information to the right people, in the most useful form. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can an organization be structured so that its information-processing effectiveness is maximized?" (IV.D) ORGANIZING TO MANAGE UNCERTAINTY. Most organizations have developed systems and methods to handle their routine transactions. It is therefore argued that the most important information to any organization is that which helps it deal with its most important uncertainties. These uncertainties may exist outside the organization (e.g., customer preferences or interest rates) or within (e.g., what process will most efficiently accomplish a certain task, or how employees will respond to a new incentive system). There are several ways to address uncertainty, among them: (1)devoting resources to quickly finding out about changes and getting that information into the decision-making system; (2)influencing things through marketing, lobbying, or public relations; (3)creating enough "slack" or underutilized resources so that uncertainty is absorbed. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I identify my organization's major uncer- tainties and adopt appropriate strategies to deal with them?" (IV.E) LINKING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TO THE NATURE OF THE TASK TO BE DONE. Successful organizations establish a better fit between their structure and the tasks they perform. For example, it is generally true that the more routine and predictable the work is, the more formal the organization can be; on the other hand, less routine and more unpredictable tasks are generally carried out more creatively in a less formal environment. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What are the key variables in achieving good fit between tasks and structure, and how are they applied?" (IV.F) COORDINATING MECHANISMS. Ways of achieving coordination should be incorporated into the manager's thinking about organization. There are many coordinating mechanisms and practices. A weekly staff meeting is a common example; it is not so commonly understood that some forms of planning play a powerful coordinating role. The question that`can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What coordination mechanisms are available, and how do I select and use appropriate ones?" (IV.G) FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION-MAKING AUTHORITY. The structure of an organization affects the distribution of decision-making authority. Both the formal structure and informal practices play a part in establishing, communicating and reinforcing an individual's authority. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I ensure that decision-making authority is properly assigned and effectively maintained within the organization?" (IV.H) FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF POWER. Power is not just a matter of formal authority, but of opportunities and resources to influence others. Both organizational structure and less-formalized practices affect individuals' power. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I ensure that power is properly distributed?" (IV.I) MATCHING INDIVIDUALS WITH TASKS. Assigning work calls for sensitivity to an array of personal qualities, talents, and expectations. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I ensure that work assignments are properly distributed among individual staff members?" (IV.J) RESPONDING TO THE ORGANIZATION'S ENVIRONMENT. Institutions, individuals, and groups outside the organization constitute its "environment." Since the environment has a significant impact on the organization, it should be considered in making structure decisions. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can the organization be structured to take its environment into account?" (IV.K) REWARD SYSTEMS AS AN ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE. Formal and informal reward practices shape the behavior of an organization's members. Highly effective organizations create and maintain consistency between a proper organizational structure and their reward-and-sanction practices. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I understand, recognize and adapt reward systems so they contribute to effective organization?" (IV.L) CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF DECISION-MAKING. Decision-making is "decentralized" to the extent that individuals who are "low" in the hierarchy have control over all steps in the decision-making process, from identifying the issue to authorizing action. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How much centralization and decentralization should be incorporated into an organization's structure?" (IV.M) CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF PHYSICAL LOCATION. Managerial functions become more complicated when people are physically separated from each other. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How should work be assigned and coordinated when employees are geographically distant?" (IV.N) VISIBILITY OF RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY. Effective organization makes it easy to determine who is responsible for which tasks. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can a manager ensure that responsibility and accountability are clearly assigned?" (IV.O) MANAGING SUBCONTRACTORS. One management writer refers to subcontracting as "just another form of delegation." The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What organizing principles and practices lead to the most effective utilization of subcontractors?" (IV.P) EFFECT OF THE COMPUTER ON ORGANIZATION. Although most of its present applications are evolutionary, the computer has the potential to revolutionize organizing principles and strategies. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can a manager incorporate computer capabilities into organizing decisions?" (IV.Q)