@1
   ALTERNATIVE ORGANIZING MODELS. Although no real-world organization fits
   any all-encompassing stereotype, there are several models of
   organizations that shed light on the alternatives available to the
   manager, and the management issues associated with each. The question
   that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter
   is: "What general organizing choices are available to me and how do I
   decide about using them?"  (IV.A)

@2
   THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZING. The question that can be answered with a
   thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What specific thought
   process should I follow in making decisions about organizational
   structure?" (IV.B)

@3
   ISSUES IN MATRIX ORGANIZATIONS. Matrix structures have been implemented
   by many organizations in recent years, and considerable attention has
   been paid to the prevention, diagnosis and cure of those organizations'
   problems. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of
   this subject matter is: "How can the matrix structure be employed to its
   greatest advantage?" (IV.C)

@4
   THE ORGANIZATION AS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING SYSTEM. One view of
   organizing is that an organization is a system for processing
   information. Two activities are at the heart of this approach:
   (1)determining what information is most important for the success of an
   organization, and (2)developing systems that deliver this information to
   the right people, in the most useful form. The question that can be
   answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can
   an organization be structured so that its information-processing
   effectiveness is maximized?" (IV.D)

@5
   ORGANIZING TO MANAGE UNCERTAINTY. Most organizations have developed
   systems and methods to handle their routine transactions. It is
   therefore argued that the most important information to any organization
   is that which helps it deal with its most important uncertainties. These
   uncertainties may exist outside the organization (e.g., customer
   preferences or interest rates) or within (e.g., what process will most
   efficiently accomplish a certain task, or how employees will respond to
   a new incentive system). There are several ways to address uncertainty,
   among them: (1)devoting resources to quickly finding out about changes
   and getting that information into the decision-making system;
   (2)influencing things through marketing, lobbying, or public relations;
   (3)creating enough "slack" or underutilized resources so that
   uncertainty is absorbed.
       The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this
   subject matter is: "How can I identify my organization's major uncer-
   tainties and adopt appropriate strategies to deal with them?" (IV.E)

@6
   LINKING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TO THE NATURE OF THE TASK TO BE DONE.
   Successful organizations establish a better fit between their structure
   and the tasks they perform. For example, it is generally true that the
   more routine and predictable the work is, the more formal the
   organization can be; on the other hand, less routine and more
   unpredictable tasks are generally carried out more creatively in a less
   formal environment. The question that can be answered with a thorough
   knowledge of this subject matter is: "What are the key variables in
   achieving good fit between tasks and structure, and how are they
   applied?" (IV.F)

@7
   COORDINATING MECHANISMS. Ways of achieving coordination should be
   incorporated into the manager's thinking about organization. There are
   many coordinating mechanisms and practices. A weekly staff meeting is a
   common example; it is not so commonly understood that some forms of
   planning play a powerful coordinating role. The question that`can be
   answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What
   coordination mechanisms are available, and how do I select and use
   appropriate ones?" (IV.G)

@8
   FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION-MAKING AUTHORITY. The
   structure of an organization affects the distribution of decision-making
   authority. Both the formal structure and informal practices play a part
   in establishing, communicating and reinforcing an individual's
   authority. The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge
   of this subject matter is: "How can I ensure that decision-making
   authority is properly assigned and effectively maintained within the
   organization?" (IV.H)

@9
   FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF POWER. Power is not just a matter of
   formal authority, but of opportunities and resources to influence
   others. Both organizational structure and less-formalized practices
   affect individuals' power. The question that can be answered with a
   thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How can I ensure that
   power is properly distributed?" (IV.I)

@10
   MATCHING INDIVIDUALS WITH TASKS. Assigning work calls for sensitivity to
   an array of personal qualities, talents, and expectations. The question
   that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter
   is: "How can I ensure that work assignments are properly distributed
   among individual staff members?" (IV.J)

@11
   RESPONDING TO THE ORGANIZATION'S ENVIRONMENT. Institutions, individuals,
   and groups outside the organization constitute its "environment." Since
   the environment has a significant impact on the organization, it should
   be considered in making structure decisions. The question that can be
   answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How
   can the organization be structured to take its environment into
   account?" (IV.K)

@12
   REWARD SYSTEMS AS AN ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE. Formal and informal reward
   practices shape the behavior of an organization's members. Highly
   effective organizations create and maintain consistency between a proper
   organizational structure and their reward-and-sanction practices.
   The question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this
   subject matter is: "How can I understand, recognize and adapt reward
   systems so they contribute to effective organization?" (IV.L)

@13
   CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF DECISION-MAKING.  Decision-making
   is "decentralized" to the extent that individuals who are "low" in the
   hierarchy have control over all steps in the decision-making process,
   from identifying the issue to authorizing action. The question that can
   be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "How
   much centralization and decentralization should be incorporated into an
   organization's structure?" (IV.M)

@14
   CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF PHYSICAL LOCATION. Managerial
   functions become more complicated when people are physically separated
   from each other. The question that can be answered with a thorough
   knowledge of this subject matter is: "How should work be assigned and
   coordinated when employees are geographically distant?" (IV.N)

@15
   VISIBILITY OF RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY. Effective organization
   makes it easy to determine who is responsible for which tasks. The
   question that can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject
   matter is: "How can a manager ensure that responsibility and
   accountability are clearly assigned?" (IV.O)

@16
   MANAGING SUBCONTRACTORS. One management writer refers to subcontracting
   as "just another form of delegation." The question that can be answered
   with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is: "What organizing
   principles and practices lead to the most effective utilization of
   subcontractors?" (IV.P)

@17
   EFFECT OF THE COMPUTER ON ORGANIZATION. Although most of its present
   applications are evolutionary, the computer has the potential to
   revolutionize organizing principles and strategies. The question that
   can be answered with a thorough knowledge of this subject matter is:
   "How can a manager incorporate computer capabilities into organizing
   decisions?" (IV.Q)

@0