01/10/93


CHAPTER 32

              "Adverbs: Formation and Comparison; Volo"


ADVERBS

Adverbs, of course, are words which modify verbs; that is, they
tell you something about the way in which, or the conditions
under which, the action of the verb is undertaken: "quickly",
"stupidly", "easily", "suddenly" and so forth.  And because they
don't agree with their verb in any way, adverbs don't decline or
take on a variety of endings to match them with their verbs.

The adverbs you've been working with up to now are, shall we say,
"obvious" adverbs.  Adverbs like "tamen" or "tum" aren't
morphologically related at all to any other words in any way.
They aren't derived from adjectives or nouns; they are only
adverbs.  But if you look at an English adverb like "quickly",
you can clearly see how this is a form derived from the adjective
"quick".  To turn it into an adverb, English simply attaches the
ending "-ly".

This may not seem like a monumental discovery, but it does have
an important consequence.  Since "quickly" is a form which is
derivable from "quick" according to a rather straight-forward
rule of English grammar, an English dictionary will not list
"quickly" as a separate word.  You'll find it mentioned in
passing only under the entry for "quick", which is its ancestor,
so to speak.

Latin also has a set of rules for deriving adverbs from
adjectives, and it is important that you know them -- for the
same reason it's important to know the English rules of creating
adverbs from adjectives: because an adverb which is a derived
form from an adjective will not be given a separate dictionary
listing.  To look up a derived adverb, you'll first have
deconstruct it, by undoing the rules that made it an adverb in
the first place.  You have to reduce the adverb to the original
adjective; then you can look the adjective up.  Once you have the
meaning of the adjective, then you can go back to your sentence
and "adverbize" the meaning of the adjective.  Let's get started.

Just as there are three degrees of adjectives, so also there are
three degrees of adverbs.  An adverb in the positive degree is
formed off the positive degree stem of the adjective; the
comparative degree of the adverb is formed from the comparative
degree stem of the adjective; and the superlative degree of the
adverb is formed from the superlative degree stem of the
adjective.  As a brief refresher, here are the rules for forming
the degrees of adjectives.


COMPARATIVE DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES

                     stem     +       -ior, -ius

            ADJECTIVE              STEM          COMPARATIVE DEGREE

      longus, -a, -um              long-           longior, -ius
      miser, -a, -um               miser-          miserior, -ius
      pulcher, -chra, -chrum       pulchr-         pulchrior, -ior
      acer, acris, acre            acr-            acrior, -ius
      fortis,-e                    fort-           fortior, -ius


SUPERLATIVE DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES

     A.    For adjectives whose stem does not end in "-r"

                  stem     +     -issimus, -a, -um


            ADJECTIVE              STEM          SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

          longus, -a, -um          long-       longissimus, -a, -um
          fortis, -e               fort-       fortissimus, -a, -um
          potens, -ntis            potent-     potentissmus, -a, um


     B.    For adjectives whose stem ends in "-r"

                   stem     +     -rimus, -a, -um

            ADJECTIVE              STEM           SUPERLATIVE FORM

     miser, -a, -um               miser-       miserrimus, -a, -um
     pulcher, -chra, -chrum       pulcher-     pulcherrimus, -a, um
     acer, acris, acre            acer-        acerrimus, -a, -um


     C.    For the six exceptions whose stem ends in "-l":
           similis, -e; dissimilis, -e; facilis, -e; difficilis,
           -e; gracilis, -e; humilis, -e.

                   stem     +     -limus, -a, -um


            ADJECTIVE              STEM           SUPERLATIVE FORM

           facilis, -e            facil-         facillimus, -a, -um
           similis, -e            simil-         simillimus, -a, -um


Of course, you mustn't forget the adjectives, most of them very
common, which form their degrees irregularly.

       POSITIVE            COMPARATIVE          SUPERLATIVE

   bonus, -a, -um        melior, -ius        optimus, -a, -um
   magnus, -a, -um       maior, -ius         maximus, -a, -um
   malus, -a, -um        peior, -ius         pessimus, -a, -um
   multus, -a, -um       -----, plus         plurimus, -a, -um
   parvus, -a, -um       minor, minus        minimus, -a, -um
   ---------------       prior, -ius         primus, -a, -um
   superus, -a, -um      superior, -ius      summus, -a, -um
                                             supremus, -a, -um


ADVERBS IN THE POSITIVE DEGREE

Now let's have a look at how Latin "adverbized" an adjective. In
English, as you know, we can easily turn most adjectives into
adverbs simply by added "-ly" to the stem: "quickly", "speedily",
"ferociously", et cetera.  In Latin, to form an adverb in the
positive degree, you start with the stem of the positive degree
of the adjective.
For adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second
declension, the rule is simple:

                     stem     +     -e

For adverbs derived from third declension adjectives:

                     stem     +     -iter

For adverbs derived from third declension adjectives whose stem
ends in "-nt-":

                     stem     +     -er

This is fairly easy, but let's try a few exercises:  Form the
positive degree of the following adverbs.


  ADJECTIVE        STEM            POSITIVE ADVERB


acer, -cris, -re________________________________________

sapiens, -ntis________________________________________

fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________

iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________

liber, -a, -um________________________________________

clarus, -a, -um________________________________________

celer, -is, -e________________________________________


COMPARATIVE DEGREE OF ADVERBS

In English, we compare adverbs by using the word "more" placed in
front of the adverb in the positive degree: "more quickly".
Latin forms a comparative adverb simply by using the comparative
adjective in the neuter accusative singular form.  So to say
"more beautifully", or "rather beautifully", or "too
beautifully", Romans said "pulchrius".  Let's try a few out.

  ADJECTIVE        STEM          COMPARATIVE ADVERB


acer, -cris, -re________________________________________

sapiens, -ntis________________________________________

fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________

iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________

liber, -a, -um________________________________________

clarus, -a, -um________________________________________

celer, -is, -e________________________________________


SUPERLATIVE DEGREE OF ADVERBS

The English superlative adverb is "most" plus the adverb in the
positive degree.  To form the superlative degree of an adverb,
you simply use the stem of the superlative degree of the
adjective and add a "-e".  To say "most beautifully", or "very
beautifully", Romans said "pulcherrime".  Let's have a look.

  ADJECTIVE        STEM          SUPERLATIVE ADVERB


acer, -cris, -re________________________________________

sapiens, -ntis________________________________________

fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________

iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________

liber, -a, -um________________________________________

clarus, -a, -um________________________________________

celer, -is, -e________________________________________

DRILLS

Write out the positive, comparative and superlative degree
adverbs derived from the following adjectives.

ADJECTIVE           POSITIVE     COMPARATIVE    SUPERLATIVE


longus, -a, -um ________________________________________________

miser, -a, -um  ________________________________________________

pulcher, -chra, -chrum        ________________________________
________________

felix, -icis    ________________________________________________

potens, -ntis   ________________________________________________

facilis, -e     ________________________________________________


DEGREES OF ADVERBS FROM IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

As you know, there are some common adjectives which form their
degrees irregularly.  We would hope that the adverbs would just
use the irregular stems to form their degrees.  And sometimes
that's what happens.  But sometimes other irregularities start to
creep in.  Let's look at them.  Here are some of irregular
adjectives in their three degrees.  Try to write them out first
on your own.

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVE      POSITIVE       COMPARATIVE     SUPERLATIVE

bonus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________

malus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________

magnus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________

multus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________

parvus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________

(prae, pro)____________________________________________________________


1.   From bonus, -a, -um

     Starting with "bonus, -a, -um", if we were to follow the
     rules for deriving the positive degree adverb, we'd get a
     form like this: "bone".  And that's pretty close to the
     actual form "ben".  The comparative degree of the adjective
     is "melior, -ius", so, following the standard rules, what
     would be the comparative adverb?  The rule says to use the
     neuter, accusative singular of the comparative adjective for
     the comparative adverb, so the form would be "melius".  And
     that is in fact the real form.  For the superlative, the
     form of the adverb would be "optime", and that's what the
     real form is.  Now fill in the spaces in the table above
     with the degree of the adverb derived from "bonus".

2.   From malus, -a, -um

     The adverbs derived from "malus" are entirely regular --
     once you remember the irregular degrees of the adjective
     itself.  Fill in the next row of blanks.

3.   From magnus, -a, -um

     The adverbs in the positive and comparative degrees from
     "magnus" a very odd: "magnopere" for the positive degree
     (not "magne") and "magis" for the comparative degree (not
     "maius").  But the superlative degree follows the rules.
     Fill them in.

4.   From multus, -a, -um

     The adverbs from "multus" are odd, too.  Just "multum" for
     the adverb in the positive degree, "plus" for the
     comparative degree, and "plurimum" (not the expected
     "plurime") in the superlative degree.

5.   From parvus, -a, -um

     The adverbs from "parvus" follow the rule, except for the
     positive degree, where we have "parum", instead of "parve".

6.   From prior, -ius

     As you might expect, there is no adverb for "before"; Latin
     instead uses a subordinating conjunction and a subordinate
     clause for that.  The comparative degree of the adverb is
     regular; the superlative degree is either "primum" or
     "primo", (not "prime").

7.   "For a long (longer) (longest) time"

     Wheelock also shows you degree of an adverbs which means
     "for a long time", "for rather long time", and "for a very
     long time".  This adverb is not derived from an adjective,
     but it does show degrees as if it were.  Besides, it's a
     very common adverb, so you need to recognize it:

              diu          diutius          diutissime

8.   Magnopere, magis, maxime

     Wheelock gives you another set of adverbs which are also
     derived from the adjective "multus, -a, -um".  The meanings
     are straight-foward enough -- "greatly, more, and most" --
     but there is a fine distinction is usage of these forms from
     the other adverbs derived from "multus", "multum, plus, and
     plurimum".  In the comparative, "plus" is used to compare
     amounts of action undertaken: "Video plus quam tu" (I see
     more than you).  "Magis", however, is used to compare
     certain adjectives: "Hoc idoneum est quam illud" (This is
     more suitable than that.)  This may seem odd, because you
     learned in Chapter 26 that comparative adjectives are formed
     by adding the suffixes "-ior, -ius" to the stem.  This rules
     holds except for adjectives whose stem ends in "-e-", as
     "idoneus, -a, -um" does.  These adjectives use the
     comparative adverb "magis" to form their comparative degree.
     Similiarly, the superlative degree of these adjectives is
     "maxime" plus the positive degree.  (You won't see "magis"
     or "maxime" much in this book.)


THE IRREGULAR VERB Volo, velle, volui, -----

The verb "to wish" has some irregularities in the present system
of tenses, it has no passive voice in either the present or the
perfect system.  (Hence no fourth principal part.)  The perfect
system active, however, is entirely regular.  Unfortunately,
there isn't any way to predict or explain many of these oddities,
so you simply must memorize them.  Basically "volo" is a third
conjugation verb, so you should be noting how it differs from a
regular third conjugation verb.  That will give you some standard
against which to compare it.  In the following tables, I'll fill
in the irregular forms; you fill in the rest.

I.   THE PRESENT SYSTEM

     (a)   Indicative

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd        vis       ________________________________________

  3rd        vult      ________________________________________


  1st        volumus   ________________________________________

  2nd        vultis    ________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st        velim                             vellem

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


II.  PERFECT SYSTEM

     (a)   Indicative

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


III.  INFINITIVES

                  ACTIVE              PASSIVE

  PRESENT  ____________________

  PERFECT  ____________________

  FUTURE


IV.  PARTICIPLES

                  ACTIVE               PASSIVE

  PRESENT  ____________________

  PERFECT

  FUTURE


V.   IMPERATIVES (No imperative forms)


THE RELATED IRREGULAR VERBS Nolo AND Malo

The two irregular verbs "nolo" (not to want) and "malo" (to
prefer) are derivatives of "volo".  "Nolo" is a kind of
contraction of "ne + volo", meaning literally "I don't want", and
"malo" comes from "magis + volo", meaning literally "I wish
more".  Because these verbs are so closely related, therefore, to
the irregular verb "volo", Wheelock thinks it right to put them
together in the same chapter.  Why not?

Write out the conjugations of these two verbs.  Again, I'll put
in the irregular forms; you should be able to produce the forms
that aren't irregular on your own.

Nolo, nolle, nolui, -----

I.   THE PRESENT SYSTEM

     (a)   Indicative

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd       non vis    ________________________________________

  3rd       non vult   ________________________________________


  1st        nolumus   ________________________________________

  2nd      non vultis  ________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st        nolim                            nollem

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


II.  PERFECT SYSTEM

  (a)  Indicative

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


III.  INFINITIVES

                  ACTIVE               PASSIVE

  PRESENT  ____________________

  PERFECT  ____________________

  FUTURE


IV.  PARTICIPLES

                  ACTIVE               PASSIVE

  PRESENT  ____________________

  PERFECT

  FUTURE


V.   IMPERATIVES

     SINGULAR   noli

     PLURAL     nolite



Malo, malle, malui, -----


I.   THE PRESENT SYSTEM

     (a)   Indicative

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd        mavis     ________________________________________

  3rd        mavult    ________________________________________


  1st        malumus   ________________________________________

  2nd       mavultis   ________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PRESENT          FUTURE          IMPERFECT

  1st         malim                            mallem

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


II.  PERFECT SYSTEM

     (a)   Indicative

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  1st ____________________________________________________________

  2nd ____________________________________________________________

  3rd ____________________________________________________________


  (b)  Subjunctive

             PERFECT      FUTURE PERFECT     PLUPERFECT

  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


  1st ____________________              ____________________

  2nd ____________________              ____________________

  3rd ____________________              ____________________


III.  INFINITIVES

                  ACTIVE               PASSIVE

  PRESENT  ____________________

  PERFECT  ____________________

  FUTURE


IV.  PARTICIPLES (No participles)

V.   IMPERATIVES (No imperative forms)



VOCABULARY PUZZLES

divitiae, -arum (f)  The noun has no singular forms, and students
                     often confuse this noun with adjective
                     "dives, divitis (ditis)" meaning "wealthy
                     rich".

dives, divitis (ditis)    This is a third declension adjective of
                          one termination, which also has two
                          possible stems: "divit-" or "dit-".  You
                          must work hard to keep the form derived
                          from the stem "divit-" and the noun for
                          "riches" ("divitiae, -arum (f)")
                          distinct.

pauper, pauperis     Another third declension adjective of one
                     termination.  It is very often used to mean
                     "a poor person", or "the poor".

par, paris           Once again, a third declension adjective of
                     one termination.  Don't confuse this with the
                     noun "pars, partis (f)".  "Par" means "equal"
                     and takes the dative case: "equal to".
                     (Remember the parisyllabic (equal syllable)
                     rule?)

honor, -oris (m)     It very often means "public office"; a
                     position with the government.

lex, legis (f)       Wheelock reminds you to contrast (c.p.)
                     "lex", which means a written law, with "ius",
                     which means "right, justice"  Not all rights
                     become written law, and justice is often not
                     entirely recognized in law.  "Leges" attempt
                     to codify "iura", but they don't always
                     succeed.

