>From the web page http://www.pluk.org/AT1.html

Family Guide to Assistive Technology

                          Prepared By:
              Parents, Let's Unite for Kids (PLUK)
                       in cooperation with
          The Federation for Children with Special Needs
                EDITOR: Katharin A. Kelker, Ed.D.
                   PRODUCTION: Roger Holt, ATP
                    ILLUSTRATION: Karen Moses
              (c) Parents, Let's Unite for Kids 1997

     This guide was funded through a subcontract between the
Federation and Parents, Let's Unite for Kids from monies awarded
    to the Federation by the Office of Special Education and
  Rehabilitation Services (OSERS), U.S. Department of Education.
  Points of view or opinions herein do not necessarily represent
          the Education Department's position or policy.
   The Department of Education ensures equal employment, equal
 educational opportunities, and affirmative action regardless of
  race, sex, color, national origin, religion, marital status,
                       age, or disability.
This material is available upon request in alternative formats
by calling: 1-800-222-7585 or email: plukmt@wtp.net.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Defining Assistive Technology

     Sara

Making Assistive Technology Decisions

     Sierra

Funding Assistive Technology

     Ted
     Gloria

Making Assistive Technology a Part of Child's Education

     Emily
     Bryan
     Tracy

Advocating for Assistive Technology

More Questions and Answers

Appendix

     Glossary
     Documents
       * Schrag Letter on Assistive Technology
       * Individuals with Disabilities Education Law Report
       * Letter Requesting an Assistive Technology
       * Evaluation
       * Assistive Technology...Issues to Address

     Examples

       * Educational Software Evaluation
       * Software Features
       * Alternative Input
       * Processing Aids
       * Alternative Output
       * Specialized Products
       * Assistive Technology Evaluation

     Resources

       * Parent Training and Information Centers
       * Alliance for Technology Access Resource Centers
       * State Tech Act Projects

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Introduction

Assistive technology is redefining what is possible for people
with a wide range of cognitive and physical disabilities. In the
home, classroom, workplace, and community, assistive technology
is enabling individuals with disabilities to be more
independent, self-confident, productive, and better integrated
into the mainstream.

Beginning early in life, technology is making it possible for
children with disabilities to do more for themselves. A child
who cannot use her hands can operate a computer with a switch
and an on-screen keyboard. A child with speech problems can
communicate using a portable electronic device that "speaks." A
child who is unable to get in and out of the bathtub can be
safely and easily lifted using a mechanical device. These are
just a few examples of the wide variety of equipment, called
assistive technology, that is available today.

Assistive technology can mean anything from simple, homemade
devices to highly sophisticated environmental control systems.
It can be adapted toys, computers, powered mobility,
augmentative communication devices, special switches, and
thousands of commercially available or adapted tools to assist
an individual with learning, working, and interacting socially.

As wonderful as assistive technology can be, it is not always
easy to acquire. It takes expertise and persistence to find the
correct devices and figure out ways to pay for them. For
example, children with disabilities who are eligible for special
education have a legal right to technology to assist them with
learning. Both the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) and
the Individualized Education Program (IEP) which are required by
tthe Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are
potentially powerful tools for incorporating assistive
technology into the education of students with disabilities. But
assistive technology does not become part of a student's special
education plan unless parents are knowledgeable about technology
and know what to do to ensure that assistive technology becomes
an integral part of their child's program.

This Guide is intended to help parents learn more about
assistive technology and how it can help their children. The
Guide includes tips for getting started, ideas about where to
look for money, and suggestions for what to do when applying for
funding. Places to contact for more information or to find
software and equipment are listed in the Appendix at the end of
the Guide.

Finding and paying for the right technology requires commitment
and energy. Professionals in education and medicine can help,
but parents cannot rely on professionals to do everything that
is necessary to get the equipment. As a parent, you have a much
better chance of getting what is needed if you and your child
are involved in selecting the technology and planning for its
use. This Guide should help you to understand the processes for
acquiring assistive technology and provide you with the tools to
advocate for your child's special technology needs.

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Defining Assistive Technology

Assistive technology devices are mechanical aids which
substitute for or enhance the function of some physical or
mental ability that is impaired. Assistive technology can be
anything homemade, purchased off the shelf, modified, or
commercially available which is used to help an individual
perform some task of daily living. The term assistive technology
encompasses a broad range of devices from "low tech" (e.g.,
pencil grips, splints, paper stabilizers) to "high tech" (e.g.,
computers, voice synthesizers, braille readers). These devices
include the entire range of supportive tools and equipment from
adapted spoons to wheelchairs and computer systems for
environmental control.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the
federal special education law, provides the following legal
definition of an assistive technology device: "any item, piece
of equipment, or product system... that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities." Under IDEA, assistive technology devices can be
used in the educational setting to provide a variety of
accommodations or adaptations for people with disabilities.

The IDEA also lists the services a school district may need to
provide in order to ensure that assistive technology is useful
to a student in the school setting. The law defines assistive
technology service as: "any service that directly assists an
individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or
use of an assistive technology device." This service includes
all of the following possibilities:

  * evaluation of the technology needs of the individual,
    including a functional evaluation in the individual's
    customary environment;
  * purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing for the
    acquisition of assistive technology devices for individuals
    with disabilities;
  * selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting,
    applying, maintaining, repairing, or replacing of assistive
    technology devices;
  * coordinating and using other therapies, interventions, or
    services with assistive technology devices, such as those
    associated with existing education and rehabilitation plans
    and programs;
  * assistive technology training or technical assistance with
    assistive technology for an individual with a disability,
    or, where appropriate, the family of an individual with
    disabilities;
  * training or technical assistance for professionals,
    employers, or other individuals who provide services to,
    employ, or otherwise are substantially involved in the major
    life functions of individuals with disabilities.

The intention of the special education law is that, if a student
with disabilities needs technology in order to be able to learn,
the school district will (a) evaluate the student's technology
needs, (b) acquire the necessary technology, (c) coordinate
technology use with other therapies and interventions, and (d)
provide training for the individual, the individual's family,
and the school staff in the effective use of the technology.

During the time that students with disabilities are in school,
they can have the opportunity to learn to use technology at the
same time that they are learning academic subjects and social
skills. The efficient and effective use of assistive technology
can be as basic a skill for students with disabilities as
reading, writing, and arithmetic since the use of technology can
go a long way toward circumventing the limitations of disability
and providing students with disabilities with a "level playing
field" in every area of life accomplishment.

What is an accommodation?

Accommodations are reasonable modifications that are made to
compensate for skills or abilities that an individual lacks. For
example, if a person does not digest spicy foods well, we might
accommodate this individual by adjusting his or her diet so that
the person was eating only bland foods.

When the word accommodation is used in connection with
disability issues, it refers to a way of modifying a task or
assignment so that a person with a disability can participate in
spite of whatever challenges the disability may pose. For
example, when a student who is unable to remember math facts is
allowed to do math problems with a calculator, the use of the
calculator is an accommodation which allows the student to work
around his or her disability. With an accommodation, the student
can still perform math problems, but the student does so using a
different method.

In the school setting, sometimes it is necessary to make
accommodations for individuals with disabilities in order to
compensate for skills or abilities that they do not have. For
example, for some students with learning disabilities learning
to spell words correctly may be a skill they never acquire or
never acquire with a high enough degree of fluency to do them
any good in written expression. To compensate for this inability
to spell, such students may be encouraged to use alternative
methods for spelling like a spell check software program on the
computer or a hand-held spelling device.

What is an adaptation? How does adaptation differ from
accommodation?

Adaptation means developing unique devices or methods designed
specifically to assist persons with disabilities to perform
daily tasks. An adaptation is something specially designed which
is not normally used by other people. An accommodation, on the
other hand, is simply a change in routine, method, or approach
which may be used by people with or without disabilities.
Examples of adaptations include special grips to turn stove
knobs or specially designed keyboards to operate computers.

What are common types of assistive technology? Does assistive
technology just mean computers?

Assistive technology certainly includes computers, but it also
refers to a number of other types of accommodations and
adaptations which enable individuals with disabilities to
function more independently. Computers are an important type of
assistive technology because they open up so many exciting
possibilities for writing, speaking, finding information, or
controlling an individual's environment. But computers are not
the only avenues to solving problems through technology. There
are many low tech (and low cost) solutions for problems that
disabilities pose. Examples of inexpensive, low tech solutions
include wrist splints, clip boards for holding papers steady, or
velcro tabs to keep positioning pads in place.

The following is a list of common assistive technology
applications:

Positioning.  In the classroom, individuals with physical
disabilities may need assistance with their positions for
seating so that they can participate effectively in school work.
Generally, therapists try to achieve an upright, forward facing
position by using padding, structured chairs, straps, supports,
or restraints to hold the body in a stable and comfortable
manner. Also considered is the student's position in relation to
peers and the teacher. Often, it is necessary to design
positioning systems for a variety of settings so that the
student can participate in multiple activities at school.
Examples of equipment used for positioning are side lying
frames, walkers, crawling assists, floor sitters, chair inserts,
wheelchairs, straps, trays, standing aids, bean bag chairs, sand
bags and so forth.

Access.  In order to participate in school tasks, some students
require special devices that provide access to computers or
environmental controls. The first step in providing access is to
determine which body parts can be used to indicate the student's
intentions. Controllable, anatomical sites like eye blinks, head
or neck movements, mouth movements may be used to operate
equipment which provides access to the computer. Once a
controllable, anatomical site has been determined, then
decisions can be made about input devices, selection techniques
(direct, scanning), and acceleration strategies (coding,
prediction). Input devices include such things as switches,
alternative keyboards, mouse, trackball, touch window, speech
recognition, and head pointers. Once computer access has been
established, it should be coordinated with other systems that
the student is using including powered mobility, communication
or listening devices, and environmental control systems.

figure 1: Alternative and Processing Computer Access Methods

                              Input
                            Processing
                              Output

  * Alternate keyboards
  * Interface devices
  * Joysticks
  * Keyboard modifications
  * Keyboard additions
  * Optical pointing devices
  * Pointing and typing aids
  * Switches with scanning
  * Scanners & optical character recognition
  * Trackballs
  * Touch screens
  * Voice recognition

  * Abbreviation/expansion and macro programs
  * Access utilities
  * Menu management programs
  * Reading comprehension programs
  * Writing composition programs
  * Writing enhancement tools (i.e. grammar checkers)

  * Braille displays and embossers
  * Monitor additions
  * Screen enlargement programs
  * Screen readers
  * Speech synthesizers
  * Talking and large print word processors

Access can also refer to physical entrance and exit of buildings
or facilities. This kind of assistive technology includes
modifications to buildings, rooms and other facilities that let
people with physical impairments use ramps and door openers to
enter, allow people with visual disabilities to follow braille
directions and move more freely within a facility, and people of
short stature or people who use wheelchairs to reach pay phones
or operate elevators. Accessibility to shopping centers, places
of business, schools, recreation, transportation is possible
because of assistive technology modifications.

Environmental Control. Independent use of equipment in the
classroom can be achieved for students with physical
disabilities through various types of environmental controls,
including remote control switches and special adaptations of
on/off switches to make them accessible (e.g. velcro
attachments, pointer sticks).

Robotic arms and other environmental control systems turn lights
on and off, open doors, operate appliances. Locational and
orientation systems give people with vision impairments
information about where they are, what the ground nearby is
like, and whether or not there is a curb close by.

Augmentative Communication.  Every student in school needs some
method of communication in order to interact with others and
learn from social contact. Students who are nonverbal or whose
speech is not fluent or understandable enough to communicate
effectively may benefit from using some type of communication
device or devices. Communication devices include such things as
symbol systems, communication boards and wallets, programmable
switches, electronic communication devices, speech synthesizers,
recorded speech devices, communication enhancement software, and
voiced word processing.

Assistive Listening.  Much of the time in school, students are
expected to learn through listening. Students who have hearing
impairments or auditory processing problems can be at a distinct
disadvantage unless they learn to use the hearing they have, or
they develop alternative means for getting information. Hearing
problems may be progressive, permanent, or intermittent. Any of
these impairments may interfere significantly with learning to
speak, read, and follow directions. Assistive devices to help
with hearing and auditory processing problems include: hearing
aids, personal FM units, sound field FM systems, Phonic Ear,
TDDs, or closed caption TV.

Visual Aids.  Vision is also a major learning mode. General
methods for assisting with vision problems include increasing
contrast, enlarging stimuli and making use of tactile and
auditory models. Devices that assist with vision include screen
readers, screen enlargers, magnifiers, large-type books, taped
books, Braillers, light boxes, high contrast materials,
thermoform graphics, synthesizers, and scanners.

Mobility. Individuals whose physical impairments limit their
mobility may need any of a number of devices to help them get
around in the school building and participate in student
activities. Mobility devices include such things as
self-propelled walkers, manual or powered wheelchairs, and
powered recreational vehicles like bikes and scooters.

Computer-Based Instruction. Computer-based instruction can make
possible independent participation in activities related to the
curriculum. Software can be selected which mirrors the
conceptual framework of the regular curriculum, but offers an
alternative way of responding to exercises and learning
activities. Software can provide the tools for written
expression, spelling, calculation, reading, basic reasoning, and
higher level thinking skills. The computer can also be used to
access a wide variety of databases.

Social Interaction and Recreation. Students with disabilities
want to have fun and interact socially with their peers.
Assistive technology can help them to participate in all sorts
of recreational activities which can be interactive with
friends. Some adapted recreational activities include drawing
software, computer games, computer simulations, painting with a
head or mouth wand, interactive laser disks, and adapted puzzles.

Self Care. In order to benefit from education, some students
require assistance with self care activities like feeding,
dressing, and toileting. Assistive devices which assist with
self care include such things as robotics, electric feeders,
adapted utensils, specially designed toilet seats, and aids for
tooth brushing, washing, dressing, and grooming.

What sort of students might use assistive technology?

Students who require assistive technology are those with mental
or physical impairments that interfere with learning or other
life functions. The technology helps the student to overcome or
compensate for the impairment and be more independent in
participating at school. Students who benefit from assistive
technology may have mild learning problems like learning
disabilities or they may have physical or cognitive disabilities
that range from mild to severe. Assistive technology is not
necessary or helpful for every student in special education, but
it is an important part of the support system for many students
with identified disabilities.

Isn't assistive technology appropriate only for students with
more severe disabilities?

Assistive technology is simply a set of tools that can be used
to compensate for some deficit that a person may have. For
individuals with severe mental or physical disabilities, the
technological solutions can help to solve multiple and complex
problems. But individuals with less involved problems also can
benefit from assistive technology. For example, individuals with
learning disabilities who have difficulty with reading or
writing can benefit educationally from using the word processing
and voiced reading capabilities of computers.

Isn't assistive technology just a crutch? Won't students become
too dependent on technology and not learn to use the skills they
have?

Assistive technology should be used as support for access,
learning and performing daily tasks. In general, assistive
technology is appropriate when it compensates for disabilities
so that the individual can function as normally as possible. If
assistive technology is necessary for a student to have access
to educational opportunities or to benefit from education, then
it is not a "crutch," but a legitimate support.

Some skills are too laborious or taxing to accomplish at a rate
or with degree of proficiency to allow for participation in the
least restrictive environment. With assistive technology, the
student can participate more fully and more closely approximate
the levels of achievement and interaction of his or her peers.

The use of assistive technology enhances function and increases
skills and opportunities. Though a student may be dependent upon
a particular device in order to perform skillfully, denying the
device denies the student an opportunity ever to achieve success
at the level of his or her potential.

When is using assistive technology appropriate?

Assistive technology may be considered appropriate when it does
any or all of the following things:

  * Enables an individual to perform functions that can be
    achieved by no other means
  * Enables an individual to approximate normal fluency, rate,
    or standards--a level of accomplishment which could not be
    achieved by any other means
  * Provides access for participation in programs or activities
    which otherwise would be closed to the individual
  * Increases endurance or ability to persevere and complete
    tasks that otherwise are too laborious to be attempted on a
    routine basis
  * Enables an individual to concentrate on learning or
    employment tasks, rather than mechanical tasks
  * Provides greater access to information
  * Supports normal social interactions with peers and adults
  * Supports participation in the least restrictive educational
    environment.

Summary

Assistive technology means any device which helps an individual
with an impairment to perform tasks of daily living. There is a
wide range of types of devices in assistive technology from low
tech, homemade aids to computers and sophisticated electronic
equipment. Assistive technology is one of the services which can
be provided in a special education program under the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The requirements of IDEA
say that students who need assistive technology are entitled to
the aids and devices and the assistive technology services
(e.g., evaluation for assistive technology and modification and
maintenance of equipment) that are necessary for the student to
benefit from a free, appropriate public education.

Hints for Parents

It is never too soon to consider using assistive technology.
Some infants with physical disabilities, for example, really
benefit from early interaction with toys that operate by switch.
Here are suggestions for times to evaluate a child for assistive
technology:

  * When disability limits interaction with the environment and
    interferes with experiential learning.

Assistive technology can be used to provide physical access to
the environment (e.g., switch toys, floor scooters, touch window)

  * When a significant gap exists between receptive and
    expressive abilities.

Assistive technology can assist with expression through the use
of programmable switches, electronic communication devices,
voiced word processing, braille embossing and so forth.

  * When an individual's performance falls behind that of his or
    her peers.

If an individual's handwriting, for example, is very slow,
laborious and difficult to read, use of a word processing device
can be substituted for handwriting; thus allowing the individual
to keep up with others in terms of written expression.

  * When a physical disability is impeding the
    educational/vocational potential of an individual.

Assistive technology can provide access to the workplace, for
example, by allowing an individual who is blind to learn to use
a screen reader and voiced word processing to do clerical tasks
that would otherwise be impossible.

  * When a disability is impeding the independence of an
    individual.

Sometimes assistive technology can be used to allow a person
with a disability to function more independently. For example,
having a power wheelchair allows an individual to travel
independently without the necessity of having someone to push
the wheelchair.


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Sara

Sara, who has Down syndrome, is eight years-old. Her language
and speech skills are three years delayed, but she has age
appropriate social skills. Sara has spent part of her school day
in a regular classroom ever since kindergarten, but this year
her third grade teacher is suggesting that Sara really cannot
keep up with her classmates. The teacher thinks that Sara would
be better off in a self-contained class with students who work
at her pace. Sara has some fine motor coordination problems, and
she has had difficulty learning to write in cursive. Her oral
reading is hampered by her speech difficulties. However, Sara
has learned to do addition and subtraction problems well and has
mastered adding with carrying and subtraction with borrowing.
She reads at about a second grade level with reasonably good
comprehension. Sara's parents would like to see her continue in
the regular classroom for as much time as possible, but they
recognize that Sara's writing and speaking problems are keeping
her from doing her best work.

     What are Sara's needs?

     What kinds of technology should go in Sara's IEP?

     How would you make a case for putting assistive
     technology into her IEP?

Sara's Solution

Sara's IEP Team met to discuss her needs and concluded that she
is doing well in a regular classroom setting; she is making
adequate progress in academic skills and has learned how to
interact socially with her peers. It is to be expected that Sara
will have difficulty keeping up with the pace in a third grade,
but as long as she is making progress toward her individual
goals, the regular classroom is a good setting for her. However,
some simple accommodations and technology may help Sara to work
faster and more efficiently.

At this point Sara may need some assistance with handwriting and
speaking, but the solutions to her problems in these areas need
not be complex ones. The team decided that Sara should continue
to practice cursive until she has mastered all the letters and
can be more facile in using script. However, while she is still
learning cursive, she needs other means for responding in
writing. For short written responses, the team agreed that Sara
should be encouraged to use manuscript printing. When speed is
important or when writing assignments are longer, Sara should
have access to a computer with an adaptive keyboard (e.g.,
IntelliKeys). The adaptive keyboard is helpful for Sara because
the "keys" are larger and easier to see. Using the keyboard
requires only a very light touch so Sara finds it easier to use
than a standard computer keyboard.

In terms of oral reading, the team decided to have Sara practice
reading into a tape recorder. Her speech therapist will work
with her on slowing down her rate of speech and reading with
expression. When Sara has a good tape of her oral reading, she
will submit it to her teacher for review.

Solution Summary

    Practice cursive
    Use manuscript printing for short assignments
    Use computer with adaptive keyboard for longer
    assignments
    Practice oral reading using a tape recorder


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Making Assistive Technology Decisions

When parents learn about assistive technology and the wonderful
opportunities it can provide, they want to jump right in and get
the latest in technology for their children. Who wouldn't want
an augmentative communication device for a child who cannot
talk? What parents wouldn't want to buy a computer if it would
help their child learn?

When the world of assistive technology opens up for parents, it
can be like entering a great toy store--everything looks so
wonderful that it makes it hard to know what to select. Choosing
the right device to meet an individual's needs requires
technical knowledge and indepth understanding of the
individual's functional capabilities. Not only is the selection
of a device made difficult by the complexity of the equipment
and the demands of the individual's impairment, assistive
technology devices can be very expensive. Making such purchases
is a major financial commitment for most families, one that
takes a great deal of soul searching and sometimes significant
sacrifice.

Families invest more than money in their children's assistive
technology. Practical investments of time and effort and
emotional investments of hope and enthusiasm are made with every
assistive technology purchase. Because of the high level of
financial, personal and emotional commitment, family
disappointment is great when equipment fails to perform as
expected.

Buying and then not using a device because of dissatisfaction
can be a devastating experience for all concerned. That is why
it is so important for parents to proceed cautiously into the
world of assistive technology and make purchases only after
careful evaluation and trials with the new device. Following is
a summary of some suggestions for parents to consider before
making any assistive technology purchase: be realistic about
your child's capabilities and needs; get a multidisciplinary
evaluation; examine available technology with a critical eye;
match the child's needs to specific equipment features; do not
make a purchase until you have used the device for a trial
period; identify next steps; and determine what needs to be done
for follow-up after purchase.

Guidelines for Making Assistive Technology Decisions

  * Be realistic about your child's capabilities and needs.

Assistive technology can open up exciting new opportunities for
a child, but it is not magic. There are certain basic
requirements for any individual to be successful with
technology, and it is important to face these requirements
squarely. There is nothing more disappointing or discouraging
than purchasing expensive equipment for a child which is beyond
his or her capabilities to use.

Prerequisites for Computer Use.  Physical or sensory impairments
do not limit access to computers, but cognition is a factor in
computer operation. The major prerequisite for using a computer
(with or without adaptations) is the cognitive ability to
understand cause and effect. The child must be able to
understand that the computer operates (e.g., changes, does
something) because the child has activated the equipment through
some volitional movement or activity (e.g., eyebeam, speaking,
puffing into a straw, hitting a switch). Some children enjoy
playing with switches by hitting them randomly but may not be
able to connect their own behavior to the response their
movement activates. In order to be successful in interacting
with a computer, the user must be able to control some
volitional activity and to do so consistently. For example, the
child would have to be able to activate the computer in response
to a visual, tactile, or auditory prompt.

Another prerequisite to computer use is the ability to make
conscious, meaningful choices between alternatives like yes and
no. The choices can be very simple ones, but there has to be
evidence that the child has made an actual decision and not
merely acted randomly.

If a child does not have the concept of cause and effect or
cannot make consistent choices, using a computer is probably not
a worthwhile next step at this point in the child's development.
Other types of activities may be more appropriate, less
expensive, and just as rewarding developmentally and personally.

Prerequisites for Augmentative Communication.  Augmentative
communication devices can literally give voice to the thoughts
of individuals who cannot speak or cannot speak clearly,
but--again--these devices are not magic. Electronic
communication devices are of no value unless the user has some
communicative intent. That is, for a communication device to be
helpful, the user has to have some basic understanding of the
communication process and must be intentional in expressing
choices, desires, or needs.

For example, Maggie is a four-year-old who is nonverbal. She
communicates her wants and needs by using eyeblinks as responses
to yes or no questions. When Maggie's dad asks her if she would
like another glass of milk, she indicates her choice by raising
her eyes up vertically for yes or moving her eyes down for no.
Maggie clearly knows what she wants to communicate, she has a
consistent method for making her wishes known, and she expects
that her dad will understand her communication and act on it.

Dan, who is also nonverbal, communicates in a different way. He
points to objects and makes gestures to show what he wants or
needs. His gestures are clear and used consistently so that
family members and even people who do not know Dan well can
understand most of the time what he is communicating.

Shelley communicates very basic information about how she feels
by crying when she is uncomfortable or wants attention and by
laughing when she enjoys something like music, bright lights, or
water running. Shelley does not, however, respond to yes or no
questions. She does not make choices, even when objects are
presented to her individually or in pairs. She cannot respond to
a question like "Do you want some ice cream now?" Or "Would you
like the teddy bear or the doll?"

Maggie and Dan may benefit from using some communication device
because they are already using communication systems
meaningfully and consistently. Shelley, however, may need to
develop greater ability to communicate meaningfully before
moving on to electronic communication.

Communication skills fall along a continuum. At one end of the
continuum are very simple communications like expressing
preferences by indicating yes or no, pointing or gesturing
toward objects, or pointing to pictures. Use of sign is a more
complex form of communication because it requires that the user
understand that the signs are symbols for meaningful
communications. When an individual is able to string together
signs or words into meaningful phrases, this is an additional
step toward more complex communication. When a person
understands syntax and is aware of typical word order, this is
another step forward. Each of these advances along the
communication continuum represents a step toward more complex
and sophisticated communication. Whatever assistive
communication device is chosen should match or just slightly
exceed the place on the continuum where the individual is
functioning. It makes no sense, for example, to purchase an
elaborate electronic communication device that requires
understanding symbols and syntax when the individual using the
device is just at the point of learning how to express yes and
no preferences.

An electronic device does not teach communication; it enhances
communication by giving audible expression to thoughts that
already exist in the mind of the user. If the thoughts are not
there yet or are not completely formed, they cannot be expressed
by the device.

Physical and Sensory Impairments Are Not Barriers.  Mastery of a
few simple prerequisite skills is necessary before computers or
electronic communication devices should be considered, but it is
not necessary for a child to master every developmental
milestone before entering the world of assistive technology.
Physical or sensory impairments can often be circumvented by the
technology itself, and typical developmental milestones can
sometimes be bypassed so that assistive technology can be used.
For example, some educators assume that students cannot use
computers until they have completely mastered keyboarding
skills. This is a false assumption. Many students benefit from
using computers, even though they operate the machine using a
"hunt and peck" method or only one or two keys. In a similar
fashion, students with limited verbal ability who have not
mastered oral speech benefit from using augmentative
communication devices while they continue to develop oral
language.

Overall, the keys to knowing when to try assistive technology
are (a) being realistic about the child's cognitive abilities
and potential, and (b) being open to trying the level of
technology which meets the child where he or she is.

figure 2: Factors to consider when selecting Assistive Technology

                        Cognitive Factors
                          Motor Factors

  * Diminished Cognitive Abilities
  * Learning Disabilities
  * Attention Deficits
  * Sensory/Perceptual Deficits
  * Memory Deficits
  * Abstract Reasoning Deficits
  * Problem-Solving Deficits

  * Voluntary Motor Deficits
  * Involuntary Motor Deficits
  * Fixed Posture & Positioning Deficits
  * Recurring Purposeless Motion
  * Motor Paralysis
  * Low Muscle Tone
  * Rigidity
  * Spasticity
  * Tremors

  * Get a multidisciplinary evaluation.

Evaluations for assistive technology are not always easy to
arrange. In many parts of the United States, there is no
convenient center or "place" to go for an assessment. The
available centers may be far away in another city or even
another state. Since assistive technology is a new field, the
systems for disseminating information and providing assistance
are in the process of evolving. Parents may have to be
"assistive technology detectives" in order to put together the
information needed for a complete AT evaluation for their child.

The place to start the evaluation is by considering the
functions the child needs to perform and cannot because of
impairment. The physicians, teachers, and therapists currently
working with the child, as well as family members and friends
who are around the child on a daily basis, can provide very
valuable information about functional problems and potential
solutions.

Finding Functional Solutions.  The Alliance for Technology
Access (ATA), a national network of assistive technology
centers, has developed an informal method for using the
functional information available from professionals, family
members and friends as a basis for analyzing assistive
technology needs. This process, called a Solution Circle, is a
means to bring people together in an informal session that
allows for creative thinking and is not inhibited by what is
"legal," "currently available," or "what has been done before."
The individual with a disability and 4-10 family members,
professionals, and friends get together to brainstorm ideas
about the technology which may help the individual perform
functions that are hard, or impossible, to do because of
disability. The Circle usually includes a balance between people
who know the person who needs the technology and people who have
specialized knowledge about technology, education, or
work-related issues.

Solution Circle for Tom.  To demonstrate how the Solution Circle
works, let's take a look at how this process was used in the
case of Tom, a high school student with a learning disability.
For Tom, the print in textbooks is a significant barrier to
learning. Tom is "print disabled"; that is, he cannot read the
printed word with much comprehension. Reading is a slow,
unproductive process for him, even though he is intelligent and
eager to learn. Tom and his parents were hoping that there might
be a way that new technology could help Tom overcome or work
around his problem with reading so that he could get more out of
school and perhaps go on to college.

Tom's Solution Circle included his parents, Betty and Bob; his
resource teacher; a friend Darrell; his soccer coach; his 4-H
leader; and the owner of a local computer store. This group met
together to think about how Tom could participate more fully in
school and prepare himself for college, even though he could not
read with comprehension past the second or third grade level.

Solution Circles generally take 1 to 1 1/2 hours to complete.
The steps include the following:

1. Star Time. The individual for whom the Solution Circle is
being held is described in a holistic way. The emphasis is on
how the individual is functioning at home and in the community.
What does he or she like and dislike? What are his/her goals?
Interests? If possible, the individual with a disability speaks
for himself or herself or a video or pictures may be presented.
The point of this part of the discussion is give a clear picture
of the individual as a whole person.

At Tom's Solution Circle, he explained his dream of going to
college and becoming an agricultural botanist. Tom loves plants;
he is interested in breeding new strains of wheat and perfecting
various types of grain crops. Tom's 4-H leader agreed that Tom
had real gifts in understanding plant growth and physiology, and
that he already had sophisticated knowledge about botany which
would prepare him well for college study.

2. Strengths.  With a complete picture of the individual in
mind, the group then makes an exhaustive list of the
individual's strengths, particularly noting any technological
accommodations which the individual is already using. What does
the individual do well? What are his or her unimpaired
functions? Often this discussion reveals an incredible number of
adaptations that the individual has already achieved.

Tom's Solution Circle discovered that he had many strengths,
including keen intelligence, perseverance, and thoroughness when
approaching a task. Tom already had some effective learning
strategies for remembering material that he heard. He had also
learned to use a small tape recorder for keeping track of
information provided in class.

3. Obstacles.  With the individual's strengths in mind, the
group then turns its attention to a consideration of the
environment in which the individual is functioning and the
activities in which the individual wants to participate but
cannot at this time. The group considers what the obstacles and
barriers might be for the individual in his or her environment
and makes a list of these impediments.

For Tom, reading was a serious obstacle. He could not keep up
with homework assignments because it took him so long to read
his textbooks. In addition, he had difficulty reading directions
on tests and often misread assignments on the blackboard.

4. The Enemy Within. Physical and cognitive impairments may pose
difficult obstacles for an individual, but often the feelings
that people have about the individual's disability or about
assistive technology pose greater problems than the disabilities
themselves. The Solution Circle process recognizes that human
fears, concerns, reservations, and prejudices might stand in the
way of a person's success as much as other types of limitations.
Getting these fears and concerns out on the table often helps
the group to deal more constructively with what is possible and
what needs to be done.

One of the serious issues in Tom's situation was that his
resource teacher felt he should continue to try to read for
himself instead of using a "crutch" like assistive technology.
The teacher thought that if Tom did not have to read all the
material, he would lose what little reading skill he had. In
some ways, the teacher's opposition to considering assistive
technology actually posed a greater barrier than the reading
problem itself.

5. Solutions. The exciting part of a Solution Circle occurs when
the group takes each obstacle or concern and turns it into a
possible solution through the use of technology or some other
type of adaptation. Not all solutions suggested eventually prove
to be feasible, but the point of the discussion is to produce
many possible solutions so that the individual and his or her
family have an array of options from which to choose. With good
minds puzzling over the problems and a spirit of cooperation and
collaboration, seemingly impossible barriers can be removed or
conquered. The process recognizes the expertise and
contributions of all participants, including the individual with
disabilities and his or her family members. The freewheeling
format of the discussion promotes ingenuity and innovation. All
involved come away from a Solution Circle energized by the new
possibilities.

Tom's Solution Circle became excited about the possibility of
solving his reading problem by using computerized texts. The
computer store operator mentioned he had heard that Recordings
for the Blind (RFB) offered textbooks on disk. Tom's parents got
in touch with Recordings for the Blind and ordered texts for Tom
to try on his computer at school. Soon Tom found that he could
keep up with his classmates and study exactly the same material
that they were covering. Because Tom had good strategies for
memorizing information that he heard, he learned quickly from
the texts that were read aloud to him by the computer. When
given oral tests by his classroom teachers, he was able to
recite appropriate answers which would have eluded him if he had
had to read the tests for himself.

Technology has made all the difference for Tom; he has every
reason to think that he will be able to go to college and pursue
his intellectual interests. His resource teacher is now
completely sold on the idea of assistive technology and using
computerized books and wants to use the technique with other
students. More than that, Tom's teacher also appreciates the
process of the Solution Circle which allowed professionals and
nonprofessionals to work together to find practical solutions
without being too concerned about the formalities of the special
education process. The informal nature of the Solution Circle
validated the expertise of all the participants and gave
everyone a chance to offer suggestions. The combination of a new
process for planning and new technology made Tom a winner. This
same combination holds potential for many students like Tom who
benefit from technologies which eliminate barriers and open up
new possibilities for learning.

f igure 3: ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION
Individual Functional Analysis

Name:

Date:

COGNITIVE FACTORS

MOTOR FACTORS

     Cognitive Ability Documented below average ability
     Documented significant overall delay Does not appear
     age appropriate Lacks understanding of cause & effect

     Paying Attention

     Difficulty following prompts or directions Difficulty
     with multi-step procedures Difficulty filtering
     information Difficulty staying on task

     Perception

     Needs lengthened response time Requires multi-sensory
     input Difficulty with rapid change Significant
     visual/perceptual problems Slow visual-motor dexterity

     Memory

     Difficulty with recall Requires reteaching learned
     skills Requires repeated practice

     Abstract Reasoning

     Difficulty analyzing simple procedures Unable to
     reproduce a sequence Unable to analyze or synthesize
     information

     Problem Solving

     Unable to use prompts or cues to accomplish tasks
     Unable to modify attempts and try another way
     Mobility Needs help to be mobile Needs motorized help
     to be independent Needs help boarding transportation
     Unable to transfer independently Cannot climb stairs
     Cannot open doors independently Cannot carry materials
     in hands or arms Cannot lift weight

     Voluntary Motor

     Limited control of head, trunk, or extremities Visual
     motor deficits Fixed position and posture Needs
     support to sit or stand Needs adaptations in order to
     use technology

     Motor Paralysis

     Changes in muscle tone interfere in motor movements
     Spastic movements result in poor control Limited
     movement of head, arms or legs Difficulty balancing in
     sitting position Difficulty maintaining good posture

     Low Muscle Tone

     Limited use of arms or legs Poor posture control
     Fatigues quickly

     Rigidity

     Inhibits arm and leg movement Inhibits balance to sit
     Inhibits good posture

     Spasticity

     Limited upper range of motion Limited lower range of
     motion Interferes with accuracy and consistency of
     motor movements on one side

     Tremors

     Present all the time Present when doing purposeful
     upper extremity task Unable to compensate for tremors

     Extraneous Movement

     Athetoid (constant) Ataxia (poor coordination in
     movement)

FINE MOTOR

SELF CARE

     Dexterity
  * Limited fine motor control
  * Has limited hand movement

Handwriting

  * Writing or copying ability is significantly below peers
  * Significant legibility factor--written work not readable
  * Cannot keep up with the pace of written work
  * Is frustrated by writing
  * Fatigue is a factor
  * Typing appears to be potentially faster than handwriting

  * Needs assistance with going to the bathroom
  * Unable to be toilet trained
  * Needs assistance to eat
  * Cannot take in food orally
  * Needs suctioning routinely
  * Has degenerative medical condition
  * Is medically fragile
  * Seizures limit alertness
  * Needs to rest frequently
  * Needs assistance to zip coat or tie shoes

COMMUNICATION

SENSORY

Receptive Language

  * Receptive language is significantly lower than ability
  * Receptive language is significantly higher than expressive

Expressive Language

  * Speech is unintelligible
  * Expressive language is significantly lower than ability
  * Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) is 3 words or less
  * Spontaneous or self initiated language is significantly
    limited
  * Does not make choices consistently
  * Does not respond appropriately with yes or no
  * Does not have communicative intent

Vision

  * Requires corrective lenses
  * Requires large print to read
  * Requires mobility training
  * Has blind spot

Hearing

  * Requires preferential seating
  * Hearing limitations affect the language thresholds
  * Requires assistance to receive language
  * Requires sign language to receive language
  * Has fluctuating hearing loss
  * Needs visual signals for safety purposes

>From Function to Technology Solution.  It happened that a
participant in Tom's Solution Circle hit on a great idea for a
solution to his functional problem with reading. This was a
fortunate connection to make. At the suggestions of his Solution
Circle, Tom began to use computerized books which he "reads" by
having the computer speak the words as he follows along with the
text. For Tom, computerized books proved to be a successful
solution to his reading problem because they help him to get the
information he needs without struggling with the reading process.

Not every Solution Circle will be like Tom's and identify the
exact technology that the individual needs. But if a Solution
Circle has worked well, the end result will be a clear analysis
of the functions that need to be performed. This functional
information can then be brought to technicians who can make
suggestions for possible assistive technology solutions. There
are over 50 assistive technology centers in the United States
where knowledgeable individuals can assist people with
disabilities and their families with making a match between
functions that need to be performed and the technology that is
available to perform those tasks. A list of assistive technology
centers is available in the Appendix to this Guide.

Formal Assessment.  Solution Circles are an effective, informal
way to identify functional needs that can be met through
technology. However, in the school setting, it is also necessary
to establish a student's needs for technology in a more formal
way. Formal evaluations for assistive technology must be
multi-disciplinary, involving educators and therapists who are
knowledgeable about the school curriculum and the particular
types of impairments that the student being assessed may have.
For example, for a student with cerebral palsy the assistive
technology evaluation might involve a teacher, a physical
therapist, a speech and language clinician, and an occupational
therapist. The teacher would assist the therapists in
determining what skills the student needed to learn and how
technology might assist the student in acquiring those skills.
Some assistive technology evaluations might require the
additional services of an A-V technician, adaptive physical
education teacher, a rehabilitation counselor, or speech and
language pathologist with specialized training in augmentative
communication. In school districts where there is no specialized
expertise in technology and its applications, it may be
necessary to contract for evaluations with special education
cooperatives, medical centers, or centers that focus on
technology assessment.

Individuals conducting an assistive technology evaluation should:

  * Be knowledgeable of the student's strengths and weaknesses:
    medical needs, mobility, fine and gross motor skills,
    cognitive ability, communication abilities, vocational
    potential, self help needs, sensory abilities, level of
    academic achievement, and area(s) of disability;
  * Have knowledge of and access to an array of assistive
    technology devices;
  * Be familiar with the student's educational setting and
    educational needs;
  * Be able to communicate effectively with parents and
    educators.

Because the assistive technology field is so new, there are no
particular licenses or credentialing processes to identify a
professional as qualified to do assistive technology
evaluations. Generally speaking, individuals with professional
licenses as occupational or physical therapists, special
educators, speech pathologists, or rehabilitative counselors may
have the expertise to conduct an AT evaluation. When considering
an evaluator, it is wise to ask about the evaluator's specific
experience with assistive technology. It is also important to
recognize that no one person or discipline will know everything
about assistive technology; therefore, access to knowledgeable
people at the local level and through other agencies, programs
or services is essential.

Conducting the AT Evaluation. The assistive technology
evaluation must be tailored to the unique needs of the student.
In some cases, the evaluation may be conducted by at team of
individuals; in other cases, the evaluation may be conducted by
a single individual (e.g., the speech pathologist). Questions to
be addressed during the assessment should be related to the
specific tasks the student needs to be able to perform and what,
if any, assistive technology would help. The following questions
may be considered during the assessment:

  * What tasks does the student need to perform that he or she
    cannot perform?
  * Is there a low tech device which will address the student's
    needs satisfactorily?
  * What types of high tech assistive devices may help the
    student in performing the task?
  * Will assistive technology help the student to perform the
    task in the least restrictive environment?
  * Is the device being considered suited to the student's
    educational needs and abilities?
  * Will the assistive technology device remain suitable over
    time? How long lasting will this solution potentially be?

The above are only a few of the considerations which need to be
addressed as part of the evaluation process. There is no
specific "test" for evaluating the need for assistive
technology. Therefore, prior to conducting the evaluation, the
individuals doing the assessment need to have a well planned
process in mind.

The formal written assistive technology evaluation report should
address, but not be limited to, the following points:

  * Procedures used to evaluate the student;
  * Instruments employed in the evaluation, assuring that a
    range of levels of technologies has been considered;
  * Results of evaluations, including both qualitative and
    quantitative measures;
  * Recommendations for levels of technology appropriate to the
    student's capabilities and potentials, and
  * Implications for educational programming, including
    discussion of both individual technology needs and
    recommended environmental and instructional modifications.

In the end, an assistive technology evaluation should provide
recommendations for accommodations, adaptations, devices, and
services based on the individual's strengths, needs, and
preferred lifestyle. The evaluation should indicate (a) whether
devices and services have potential for improving function, and
(b) what training may be necessary in order to use the
technology equipment safely and effectively.

  * Examine available technology with a critical eye.

It is easy to be dazzled by the possibilities in new assistive
technology, but it is important for parents to be wise consumers
and ask probing questions about the features and quality of an
assistive technology device. The following is a list of
questions to consider when evaluating a particular assistive
technology device:

Performance

Does it work efficiently and effectively? Is it easy to learn to
use this device? Is it compatible with other devices? Does this
device serve only one purpose or is it flexible?

"Elegance"

Does this device represent the simplest, most efficient way to
accomplish the task? Or is this device too elaborate, too
complicated to be worthwhile?

Ergonomics

Does it fit the individual? Is it convenient to use in the
environment? Is the equipment portable enough to go where the
user goes? Are different devices needed in different
environments?

Reliability

What is the manufacturer's reputation for reliability? Does it
stand up well to normal use? Is it durable?

Safety

Is it safe to use? What is the power source for the device? Is
it safe? Is a margin built in for foreseeable misuse?

Practicality

Do company sales people seem knowledgeable and helpful? Are the
company's service people knowledgeable and helpful? Does the
device have a warranty? How long is the device guaranteed to
function? How available are repair services? At what cost? Can
this device be leased? Is this device available for a trial
period before purchase? Will this device soon be outdated? Is
something better on the horizon? Will the company update the
device? Does the manufacturer provide training in using the
device?

Aesthetics

Is this device attractive to the eye? Does the device fit well
into the user's lifestyle?

Normalization

Does the device assist the user with more normalized living? Can
the user operate the device independently or with a minimum of
assistance? Or does the device "stick out" too much and
advertise the disability of the user? Does the equipment
minimize difference or exaggerate difference? Does the device
have the potential to increase the quantity and quality of time
spent with nondisabled peers? Or does the device separate the
user from others?

Cost effectiveness

Do the benefits the device provides justify the cost? Are there
less expensive devices or models that serve the purpose as well?

Personal acceptance

Is this device the user's own choice? Does the potential user
like this device and want to use it? Does the potential user
view this device as life-enhancing? Would the user have
preferred some other device or means to perform the task? Will
using the device always be a chore or can using it become a
habit?

There are several ways that consumers can find answers to their
specific questions about assistive technology devices. Most
vendors will provide good basic information about the product.
Call the vendor and ask for brochures, product specifications,
price list and any other written information. This is a place to
start. A second step is to read reviews of the product in trade
magazines or Closing the Gap, a widely respected publication
that reviews new assistive technology products. If possible, it
is very helpful to talk to other consumers who are already using
the product. Ask them about the pros and cons of using the
device. Then visit a preview center, if there is one nearby, and
try out several types of devices. Ask for general
recommendations from the preview center's staff. After
identifying a device that appears to meet the potential user's
needs, try the device out for a month to six weeks to make sure
that it performs as advertised and fits in well with the user's
lifestyle. During the trial period, it will be possible to
identify training needs for the user, family members and school
staff. The trial period will also be a time for the user to test
the device in several settings to determine its portability and
flexibility.

figure 4: ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION
Device or Equipment Features or Functions

Name:

Date:

Motor/Self Care

Fine Motor

  * manual wheelchair
  * power wheelchair
  * bus lift
  * supportive classroom chair
  * stander
  * walker
  * lift for transfers
  * positioning device
  * canes or crutches
  * adapted commode
  * suctioning device
  * braces or supports
  * other____________________

  * word processor
  * word processor with prediction
  * voiced word processor with prediction
  * adapted keyboard
  * keyguard
  * alternative key arrangement
  * voice activated computer access
  * infrared computer access
  * mouse access
  * trackball
  * joystick
  * power pad
  * switch (e.g., mouth, lip, chin)
  * touch screen
  * pointers
  * drag and click desk accessory
  * sticky keys
  * onscreen keyboard
  * printer for written work
  * adapted feeding utensils
  * braces or splints
  * other____________________

Cognitive/Communication

Sensory/Perceptual

  * communciation board(s)
  * communication wallet
  * total communication
  * manual sign
  * word processor with voice
  * programmed voice output
  * icon prediction
  * electronic communication device
  * programmable switch with voice output
  * no-reading-necessary word processor
  * spell checker
  * grammar checker
  * outlining program
  * other____________________

  * hearing aid(s)
  * classroom amplification
  * boosted signal to noise ratio (e.g., headset to keep focus
    during word processing)
  * corrective lenses
  * enlarged print
  * taped books
  * voiced word processing
  * voiced screen directions
  * CCTV
  * other____________________

  * Match the Individual's Needs to Specific Equipment Features.

When considering an assistive technology device, it is very
important to consider how a device matches up with the
particular individual's needs and habits. In some ways, an
assistive device becomes an extension of the user's mind and
body. As such, it is a highly personal item. A device may work
as advertised, but still not meet an individual's needs because
the individual just does not feel "comfortable" in using it. For
example, Cindy, a fourteen-year-old who is totally blind and has
mild cerebral palsy affecting her hands and arms, was being
taught Morse Code as a means to speed up her writing. She had
difficulty using a Brailler because her arm strength was so
limited so her teacher thought Morse Code would be an easier
method of writing for Cindy. The only problem was that Cindy did
not like using Morse Code. To her, it seemed like she was having
to learn another complicated language when she already knew
braille and liked to use it. Cindy admitted that writing in
braille was slow for her but she was more comfortable with it.
Cindy and her teacher were at an impasse until a friend
suggested to Cindy that she try writing on a voice-output
computer. Cindy loved the computer! With a headset attached to
the sound system, she could listen carefully to the computer as
it read aloud the letters and words she was typing on a light
touch, tactile-marked keyboard. This computer also had a feature
of printing out text in either standard print or braille. Cindy
was delighted--she could write copy for herself to read in
braille and for her sighted teachers to read in regular print.
This solution worked because it met Cindy's learning needs and
responded to her own ideas about herself. She did not want to
use Morse Code because it was a separate type of communication
known only to a few. With her computer, voiced software, and
dual printer, she had the best of two worlds--she could "hear"
her writing as she typed, she could read it over in braille, and
her sighted teachers could read her finished product. This
solution helped Cindy to improve her composition skills, speed
up her writing time, and communicate more easily with sighted
people.

Cindy was fortunate because her assistive technology solution
met her needs almost perfectly. Such a close match is not,
however, always possible. Nonetheless, every effort should be
made to have the match be as close as it can be. In general,
when assistive technology solutions are individualized, simple
to use, and responsive to the whole person, they are more likely
to be used by the individual. When the device performs a task
well, but does not "fit" the individual, the technology is
likely to be abandoned by the user in favor of something else
which meets the need more exactly. Too often devices are
purchased because of their technical potential without thought
to their relationship to the individual and his or her
lifestyle. These mismatched devices are the ones that end up
languishing in their packing boxes--a sad reminder of time and
money spent to no avail.

  * Try the Device Before Buying.

It cannot be emphasized enough how vital it is to try out
assistive technology devices and equipment before buying. Trying
out a device for several weeks provides the user with an
opportunity to learn how to use the device and how to adapt to
its features while at the same time testing the device in the
various environments where it will be used. For example, Mike
tried out a communication device which attached nicely to his
wheelchair tray and was compatible with his computer that he
used for doing school work. Though the communication device
worked well and was relatively easy to program, Mike found out
quickly that the device was just too bulky to be useful for him.
When he traveled around the school, the communication device
blocked his view of the terrain and of people passing by. He
found he missed opportunities to communicate because he could
not see who was coming his way. Mike also discovered that the
communication device did not serve him well in crowds like at
pep rallies or basketball games. After a month of working with
this communication device, Mike decided it was not for him and
selected instead a device that was less complicated, smaller,
and more portable. The second device was not as sophisticated as
the first, but it better met his needs for quick communication
with friends in social settings. If he had not had the
opportunity to try out both devices for an extended period of
time, Mike might not have realized the value of the second
device and may have been stuck with a communication device that
was too large and too sophisticated to match his lifestyle.

Similarly, Marilyn benefited from a trial period with her
communication device. She found out the first week that the
particular device she had chosen would not work for her because
it broke too easily and it was difficult to get repaired. During
the first week that Marilyn had the device for trial, her
teacher broke one of the buttons during a programming session.
It took two weeks to contact the manufacturer and then the
device had to be mailed back to the factory for repairs. The
device was gone for over six weeks, and the manufacturer would
not supply a "loaner" while Marilyn waited for repairs to the
first device. This experience taught Marilyn the importance of
having a responsive manufacturer who is willing to repair
devices quickly and to supply substitutes for the user while
repairs are being made. Marilyn decided on a different device
with similar features and a great helpline to provide assistance
with the maintenance of the machine.

The information that can be learned during a trial period with a
device is invaluable to the user. It is discouraging to find out
during the trial that a device is not all it is purported to be
or that it does not work as well as advertised, but it is far
better to learn before purchase that a device does not meet the
user's needs than to learn after purchase and be stuck with an
expensive, unusable machine. For the consumer, it is daunting to
think about starting over again with the process of selecting a
device. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile to seek more information
and look again. Having been through a trial, even when the
outcome is not successful, provides the user with greater
clarity about what an appropriate device will have to be able to
do. The second time around the search is likely to go faster and
come out with a better result.

  * Identify Next Steps.

Once a device has been selected, the consumer becomes impatient
to have one and begin using it right away. But at this point,
important work still needs to be done. Funding the device is a
major consideration. Sometimes families will pay for the device
themselves, but under other circumstances, the device will be
purchased by a school district, through Medicaid or private
insurance, or through some other means. Parents need to become
familiar with the various funding options and determine which
one will work for them (See Funding Assistive Technology for
additional information about funding sources).

Also when considering funding, families should think about costs
beyond the price of the device itself. For example, a computer
set-up with a keyboard, monitor and printer might cost $3,500.
This equipment is basically useless unless other equipment is
purchased as well: software, adaptive devices, paper, manuals,
upgrades. Prices for these additions can raise the actual cost
of the device by hundreds of dollars.

Devices often require training for the user, family members, and
others to ensure effective and safe use. How much does training
cost? Who will provide it? Repair and maintenance are other
costs usually additional to the price of the equipment.
Sometimes families will also want to insure the assistive device
so insurance payments become part of the overall cost.

Since making an assistive technology purchase is such an
important personal and financial decision, it is wise to have a
realistic budget in mind that includes all of the equipment and
services that are necessary to make the assistive technology
work effectively. With this budget in mind, it becomes easier to
plan the purchase, seek out funding sources, and make a
compelling case for financial assistance.

  * Determine What Follow-up Is Needed.

After the assistive technology device has been purchased and put
to use, there are additional follow-up activities that need to
take place. The original assistive technology evaluation should
include a way to monitor the use of the device. Periodic
scheduled reviews the by evaluator, follow-up calls to and from
the family are some ways to help assure effective, safe use.
Families who travel great distances for evaluation need to be
certain that services like maintenance, repair and replacement
of devices are available within a reasonable distance from home.

Assistive technology devices are used best when all the people
in the life of the individual with disabilities understand the
devices in the same way. At first, devices may seem to
exaggerate differences between a person and the rest of the
world. Care should be taken to explain that assistive equipment
is a difference equalizer, not a difference maker. Classmates
and friends need to understand that the adapted seating or
adapted keyboard helps the individual do what other students do.
Adults in a child's life need to understand that devices work to
make life easier, better, and more functional. People need to
know that ramps help keep individuals with mobility disabilities
from being separated from peers; that communication technology
allows people to "speak" their thoughts.

Close communication between parents and their child's
helpers--teachers, therapists, day care workers and others--is
essential to make sure devices and services are being used
safely and effectively. If the device is working well, but the
child is not being integrated into the classroom or other
environments, then there may be a need for additional training
for the children and adults who interact with the child.

Besides keeping track of how the device is working and being
used, it is important to observe progress in the areas of
technology which are useful to the individual with the assistive
technology device. As upgrades of equipment occur or more
sophisticated models come on the market, the user may want to
consider modifying or replacing the equipment that is currently
in use. Also as the individual becomes more skilled at using
technology, the individual may outgrow the current device and
need to look for more advanced equipment. It can be assumed with
most high tech items that in three to five years there will be a
need for upgrade or replacement. The wise consumer begins early
to plan for the next step in technology, including saving money
for a new device and staying alert to the new options that
become available.

What kinds of training are important to occur when a child has a
new assistive technology device?

Because assistive technology of the high tech variety is so new,
it is particularly important that training be provided to all
those who may need it. In the school setting, it is helpful for
all educators and administrators to have some awareness training
so that they have a general idea of what assistive technology
is. Areas to be covered in inservice training might include:

  * legal issues related to assistive technology
  * awareness training concerning how to serve students with
    assistive technology needs
  * information on how assistive technology relates to the
    evaluation process
  * how to write IEPs for students who require use of assistive
    technology devices
  * the relationship between technology and student placement
  * the nature of common assistive technology devices
  * resources to contact for information on assistive
    technology.

Beyond these awareness activities, those members of the school
staff who work directly with a student who uses technology, need
to have training on the specifics of using the device and how it
is maintained and serviced. Training should include, but not be
limited to, the following:

  * review of the student's educational and assistive technology
    needs
  * review of goals and objectives, supplementary aids and
    services, and related services on the IEP or IFSP
  * training on how to use and maintain the device
  * training on proper transport of the device within the school
    building and from home to school
  * training on how to program the device, if needed
  * training on how to use the device effectively during
    instruction
  * training in trouble-shooting when the device is not working
    properly
  * information about what to do when the device is not
    functioning or broken
  * information about how to coordinate assistive technology
    with all the activities in the student's day
  * training in methods to evaluate the effectiveness of
    assistive technology.

Depending on the type of assistive technology used by the
student and the student's needs, it may be advantageous for
assistive technology information to be shared with the student's
peers. Such training will help fellow students to gain an
understanding of the student's assistive device, foster
acceptance in the social environment, and reduce fears other
students may have about socializing with the student who uses
technology. In some cases, parents and the student may want to
be involved in the peer training.

Parents may require training, too, in order for the device to be
used at home for the student to complete homework assignments or
participate in extended school year services. Once trained, the
parents can become a resource to the student for proper care and
maintenance of the device.

Most importantly, the student himself or herself, will need
training in how to use the device as independently as possible.
Training for the student may be written into the IEP as a
separate goal or may be included as a related service that
supports the student's special education program.

Summary

Purchasing a high tech assistive technology device is a major
life decision because of the potential impact on the individual
and because such devices can be costly. When considering an
assistive technology device, it is important to do the
following: be realistic about the consumer's capabilities and
needs; get a multidisciplinary evaluation; examine available
technology with a critical eye; match the individual's needs to
specific equipment features; test the device for a trial period;
identify next steps; and determine what needs to be done for
follow-up after purchase. Evaluations for assistive technology,
both informal and formal, should consider first of all the
functions that the consumer wishes to perform using technology.
When evaluating a particular piece of equipment, consideration
should be given to the following features: performance,
simplicity of design, ergonomics, reliability, safety,
practicality, aesthetics, normalization, cost effectiveness, and
personal acceptance. Good sources of information about assistive
devices are manufacturers publications, trade journals, preview
centers, and consumers who are already using the device. Once a
device is selected, the consumer will need to secure funding for
the purchase and be aware of additional costs for related
equipment, insurance and training.

Hints for Parents

Don't let the cost of assistive technology deter you from
considering it for your child. High tech assistive technology
can be quite costly, but it can also make the difference for
your child in terms of becoming well educated, employable, and a
fully-included member of the community. Don't leave any stone
unturned when looking for funding sources. Consider any or all
of the following for funding or assistance:

  * Early intervention programs
  * Schools
  * Transition programs
  * Vocational Rehabilitation
  * State Programs for Children with Special Health Care Needs
  * Medicaid
  * Medicare
  * State Technology Resources
  * Used Equipment
  * Leasing
  * Equipment Loan Programs
  * Disability Organizations


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Sierra

Sierra wants to play with dolls like other children her age, but
she has a muscle disease that has caused her to lose muscle tone
except in one hand. What could be done to allow Sierra to dress
and undress her dolls, comb their hair, and bathe them?

Sierra's Solution

The assistive technology solution for Sierra involved her whole
family. While vacationing in Mexico, Sierra's grandmother found
her a fashion doll that was a bit larger than the typical
"Barbie doll." The larger doll was easier for Sierra to
manipulate. Sierra's mother sewed several outfits for the doll
using velcro instead of snaps or buttons as fasteners.

Sierra's dad bought doll stands at a toy store and fastened
several stands with clamps to Sierra's wheelchair tray. He also
fastened a plastic pouch to the tray. Sierra puts the small doll
accessories in the pouch. When Sierra wants to dress her doll,
she puts the doll in one of the stands. In this way, the doll is
held securely and Sierra can dress and undress the doll with one
hand.

Sierra's friends also use the doll stands for their dolls. With
this arrangement, two or three girls can play together.

Solution Summary

     Larger doll

     Velcro fasteners

     Plastic pouch

     Doll stands

     Clamps


Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

Funding Assistive Technology

Funding for assistive technology is available from a variety of
public and private sources. To receive public or private
funding, the individual must meet eligibility criteria for the
specific program and provide sufficient documentation of the
need for assistive technology.

The following list includes some of the programs which may pay
for equipment if the individual needing the device meets their
requirements. Many of these programs are run by different
agencies in different states, making them hard to find. In
general, the state's Tech Act office can assist consumers and
family members in finding and using these programs (See Appendix
under Resources).

                         PUBLIC PROGRAMS

Early Intervention Programs (Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act, Part H)

Young children (0-3) and their families may receive help through
early intervention programs in evaluating what the child needs,
in getting assistive technology, and in learning how to use it.
Equipment and services must be included in a written plan,
called an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP). To find the
program for a particular state, call National Early Childhood
Technical Assistance System (NEC*TAS) at 919-962-2001 or
919-966-4041 (TDD).

Head Start

This child development program provides comprehensive
educational and health services for eligible children ages 3-5.
Since 1982, federal law has required that at least 10 percent of
the total number of placements must be available to children who
are disabled and require special services. Head Start is a
mainstream placement option for children whose IEP calls for
placement with nondisabled children. The January 1993 Head Start
regulations specifically require the consideration of assistive
technology services and devices. For more information, contact
National Head Start Association, 201 N. Union St., Suite 320,
Alexandria, VA 22314; 703-739-0875.

Schools (IDEA, Part B)

This program mandates a free, appropriate public education for
preschoolers, children and youth with disabilities. An
Individualized Education Program (IEP) is required for all
children with a disability. These children are entitled to
special education, related services or supplementary aids. If
the IEP team determines that assistive technology is required
for a free, appropriate public education, then it must be
provided at no cost to the child. The technology must be
included in the child's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Parents have a right to be involved and should help to develop
the IEP goals which may include technology. For help in getting
assistive technology in the IEP, call the TAPP Focus Center on
Assistive Technology at 1-800-222-7585.

State Operated and Supported Schools (Chapter I)

This program provides federal assistance to help educate
children with disabilities who are enrolled in state-operated
and state-supported programs. Federal funds must be used to pay
for services that supplement a child's basic special education
program, such as construction and the purchase of equipment. For
more information, contact your State Department of Education.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Section 504 provides a civil-rights mandate that requires
accommodations for students who have disabilities such as
orthopedic impairments, but who do not qualify for special
education services. It denies federal funds to any institution,
including a school, whose practices or policies discriminate
against individuals with disabilities. This legislation has
resulted in a number of outcomes, including various actions to
remove physical barriers to education, which may incorporate
assistive technology. For more information, contact the nearest
regional Office of Civil Rights or the State Vocational
Rehabilitation Agency.

State Programs for Children with Special Health Care Needs

These programs provide and pay for services for eligible
children. CSHCN programs vary widely from state to state in the
services they offer, the number of children served, and the
requirements for eligibility. Some CSHCN programs do pay for
assistive technology devices when no other funding source is
available and the equipment is necessary for health-related
reasons. Most CSHCN programs are run by the state health agency.
To contact CSHCN, ask information for the telephone number of
the state health agency.

School-to-Work Transition Programs

Transition Programs are charged with assisting students with
disabilities to receive the job related training and placement
services to help them move from school to work. Sometimes
assistive technology may be necessary in order for a student to
make a successful transition and become employable. If
technology is needed for transition purposes, it can be written
into the student's Individualized Transition Plan (ITP). To
receive more information about transition and technology, call
the Parent Training and Information Center (PTI) in your state
(See Appendix).

Vocational Rehabilitation Services

State vocational rehabilitation agencies provide information,
evaluation services, training and funding for technology and
education to help adults go to work or live more independently.
If technology is necessary for an individual to work, Vocational
Rehabilitation may pay for the equipment as part of an
Individualized Work-Related Plan (IWRP). To locate the nearest
Vocational Rehabilitation Agency, look in the telephone book
under state government.

Plan to Achieve Self-Support (PASS)

One of many Social Security Administration work incentive
programs, this program provides an income and resource exclusion
that allows a blind or disabled person to set aside income and
resources for a work goal such as education, equipment purchase,
vocational training and starting a business. It should be
considered for all students with vocational goals who are
receiving social security benefits.

This program provides a mechanism for people to set aside funds
to purchase work-related equipment, such as assistive technology
devices and services. In many cases, if an individual is a
recipient of SSI and writes a PASS to purchase education or
equipment, an additional SSI check will be provided to cover
other living expenses. Sometimes if a person receives Social
Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and designs a PASS, it may
make the individual eligible for SSI because the SSDI has been
allocated for equipment and services.

Impairment-Related Work Expense (IRWE)

Impairment-Related Work Expense (IRWE)--one of the Social
Security Administration's work incentive programs--allows an
employed individual with a disability who receives or is
eligible for SSI or SSDI to deduct work-related expenses from
gross reported income.

This deduction allows the person to continue drawing SSDI or SSI
and associated benefits (Medicaid or Medicare) if the IRWE
deduction reduces earning below the Substantial Gainful Activity
(SGA) Test.

Although this method does not provide funding to pay for a
device or service, it is a way of allowing the use of the
individual's own money to pay for assistive devices and services
necessary to return to work. The following is a list of possible
work-related expenses: special transportation to and from work,
personal assistance on the job, structural modifications,
durable medical equipment, prostheses, medical supplies and
services, work-related equipment, non-medical appliances and
equipment, routine drug and medical costs, and diagnostic
procedure costs.

Medicaid

Medicaid is a joint federal and state program which covers some
equipment if it is considered medically necessary. For more
information about Medicaid and who and what is covered, contact
the local Department of Human Services office.

Medicare

Although not a usual source of funds for assistive technology,
Part B of Medicare provides coverage for some durable medical
equipment if it is considered medically necessary and is for use
in the person's home. For more information about Medicare
benefits, contact the Social Security Administration Regional
Office.

Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities
Act of 1988

This federal competitive grants program provides monies for
states to establish a statewide, consumer-responsive service
delivery system designed to effect systems change regarding
assistive technology. In most Tech Act states, a funding
specialist or policy analyst is available to assist with
accessing assistive technology. Several states operate loan
programs to help with the purchase of devices and services. For
more information, contact RESNA Technology Assistance Project,
1700 N. Moore ST., Suite 1540, Arlington VA 22209-1903;
703-524-6686.

                        PRIVATE PROGRAMS

Private Insurance

Some health insurance plans will buy equipment, but it depends
on the specific wording of the policy. Unless the policy says
the equipment is not covered, it makes sense to ask the
insurance company to pay for it. The equipment must be
considered medically necessary and therefore requires a doctor's
prescription.

Loans

There are several low or no interest loans available to help buy
technology. Call the state Tech Act program or the manufacturer
of the equipment may know where to get this type of loan.

Non-Profit Disability Associations

There are many disability organizations, some of which may be
able to loan equipment or provide information about other
funding sources or support groups. These organizations include:
National Easter Seal Society, March of Dimes, Muscular Dystrophy
Association, United Way, United Cerebral Palsy Association, and
the Braille Institute.

Foundations

Some private foundations have been set up specifically to
provide help to people with disabilities. A listing of such
foundations can be found at the library or may be available from
the state Tech Act program.

Programs Providing Assistive Technology

The state Tech Act programs offer referrals for evaluation and
equipment recommendations as well as assistance with identifying
funding or equipment lending sources. A therapy department in a
local hospital or Disabled Students Center at a local college or
university may also offer to help locate technology programs in
the area. Alliance for Technology Access Centers (ATA) sometimes
have loan programs or information about purchasing used
equipment or renting equipment.

Civic Organizations

There are many local civic and service organizations which may
provide money to help someone in their community. Lists of these
organizations are available from the Chamber of Commerce.
Examples of these organizations are: Lions Club, Masons, Grotto,
Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), Elks Club, Rotary Club, Kiwanis,
Knights of Columbus and Soroptomists. Some of these
organizations have a national focus on disability or on a
particular disability. Others will fund devices for a particular
child who is known to the local club.

Charities and Fund-Raisers

Local churches, high school groups, neighborhood organizations,
labor unions, or special interest groups (e.g., computer clubs,
ham operators) may plan a fund-raiser to help purchase assistive
technology. College student organizations (fraternities and
sororities) may give money or students' time to help a special
cause. Even if money is not available, they may be willing to
help organize a fund raiser.

Local media (radio, television, newspapers) sometimes will
sponsor fund-raising activities to fund devices. They may not
contribute money but will help with organizing the fund-raising
activity and publicizing it to the community.

                          OTHER OPTIONS

In addition to federal and private funding sources, there are a
number of education-related grants, corporate technology
donation programs, and funding options that consumers should
consider. Information on these alternative options is available
through a number of sources, including the following:

Newsletters

Education Grants Alert, Capital Publications Inc., P.O. Box
1453, Alexandria VA 22313-2052; 800-655-5597.

Education Technology News, Business Publishers Inc, 951 Pershing
Dr., Silver Spring MD 20910-4464; 301-5878-6300.

Financing Assistive Technology, Smiling Interface, P.O. Box
2792, Church St. Station, New York NY 10008-2792; 415-864-2220.

Special Education Report, Capital Publications Inc., P.O. Box
1453, Alexandria VA 22313-2053; 800-655-5597.

Technology and Learning, Peter Li Inc. Publishing, 330 Progress
Rd., Dayton OH 45449; 415-457-4333.

Technology Manufacturers

If it is not possible financially to purchase equipment,
consumers can sometimes rent or borrow equipment directly from
the manufacturer.

Used Equipment

Used equipment is often advertised for sale in
disability-related publications, or the consumer can place a
newspaper ad to see if used equipment can be purchased locally.
Several companies refurbish old computers and sell them at low
prices. Listings of used computer outlets can be obtained from
ATA Centers or state Tech Act programs.

Leasing

Many manufacturers of assistive technology devices have
equipment which is available for rent or lease. Sometimes the
rent or lease payments can be applied toward purchase. Check
with the manufacturer to see if this is an option.

Equipment Loan Programs

Many states have equipment loan programs as do some
rehabilitation facilities and disability organizations.
Information about loan programs is available from Tech Act
programs.

                    HOW TO APPLY FOR FUNDING

There is an art to applying for funding for assistive
technology. It is necessary to use just the right words to suit
the particular agency that might be the funding source. It is
also crucial to document the need for and projected outcome of
assistive technology. This documentation should include at
minimum:

  * A written statement of medical need from doctors or other
    health professionals. If the child had an evaluation by a
    rehabilitation profession, also include this report.
  * A description of the child's problems resulting from the
    disability. This description can come from the doctor or
    other professional who evaluated the child.
  * Description of how the technology helps the child. For
    example, the equipment may make the child safer or allow the
    child to do things more independently. Be sure to point out
    how money will be saved if use of the equipment allows
    attendant care to be reduced.
  * A clear statement, based on assessment, that the child is a
    good candidate who has the cognitive and physical capacities
    necessary for using the technology.

In summary, the documentation to support an assistive technology
funding request should include a physician's prescription, the
child's assessment, an explanation of projected benefit from use
of the technology or service, and any correspondence obtained
from professionals that would support the child's need for
technology.

The initial funding request should include not only the cost of
the device, but also the cost of ongoing support and instruction
in the use of the technology. Assistive devices often have
"hidden" expenses that are incurred with their purchase, and
these expenses are frequently costly over time. Battery-powered
devices may require frequent charging or cleaning. Upgrades for
computer software may be necessary. Special modifications of the
home or school environment may be necessary for the technology
to be used. In each of these examples, costs associated with the
technology may have to be assumed by the family if they are not
considered in the initial application for funding.

It is also helpful to include with the funding request a picture
or a descriptive brochure about the device being requested. This
is important because often persons who are reviewing the
application do not know about the wide range of technologies
that might be appropriate.

Appropriate wording on the application is absolutely necessary.
Key concepts for Medicaid include "medical necessity" and
"restore the patient to his or her best functional level." The
term medical necessity means that the device is included in the
course of treatment being provided to the child and that a
professional, such as a physician or speech therapist, is
supervising its use. Medicaid and private insurers alike
generally pay for technologies that help restore people to
"functioning levels" and take the place of a body part that is
not working. Typically, these programs do not pay for
technologies or services whose function is educational or
life-enhancing rather than health related.

The key for private insurance is "terms of the policy." It must
be remembered that coverage by any insurance company does not
set a precedent. Just because one child receives needed
technology under a particular policy issued by a company does
not mean that all other covered children will also have
technology paid for by that company. Each application stands on
its own based on the expressed terms of the policy.

It is usually under the major medical provisions of a health
policy that assistive technology can be provided as "other
medical services and supplies." It may, however, be necessary to
purchase additional insurance coverage or a "rider" in order for
technology costs to be included in the terms of the policy. It
is important to remember that heath insurance policies are
oriented toward health care, and not toward changes in the
environment or rehabilitation.

Both private health insurance policies and Medicaid sometimes
impose limits on the number of assistive technology devices over
a certain cost that can be purchased within a certain time
frame. Sometimes the rule is that the funding source will
purchase only one device in the individual's lifetime. With
these kinds of restrictions, it is all the more critical to be
sure that the technology choice is the right one.

                    TIPS THAT LEAD TO SUCCESS
  * Apply to several funding sources at the same time. Be sure
    to meet the requirements of each agency.
  * Find out if agencies will share costs.
  * Fill in the agency's forms correctly. Many applications are
    denied because forms are not filled out properly.
  * In addition to the standard form, include any other
    information that describes or shows what the equipment does
    and how it benefits the child. Assume no knowledge on the
    part of the reviewers.
  * Turn in all documentation at the same time.
  * Avoid using jargon; define all unfamiliar terms.
  * Take the funding request package to the agency in person.
    While there, have it checked to make sure everything
    required has been included. Get the name of the person who
    reviewed the application.
  * Call regularly to check on the funding request; each time
    try to talk to the same person.
  * Be super polite--and persistent!

                    WHAT IF FUNDING IS DENIED?

It is not at all unusual for an initial funding request to be
denied. Even when family members and professionals have been
meticulous in preparing applications requesting funding for
needed technology, denials should be anticipated. Making an
appeal is worth the effort since many denials are reversed at
the appeal level.

To start the appeal process, obtain any documentation or
information provided by the funding agency (e.g., Medicaid or
the private insurance company) relating to appeal procedures;
forms to use, timelines, and filing procedures, for instance.
This information will help in the prompt preparation for appeal.
The kind of appeal to be made depends on the reason for denial.
When developing an appeal, find out the following:

  * Why the request was denied. Ask for the reason in writing.
    Sometimes requests are denied because a reviewer lacks
    understanding of the technology or there may be an error in
    the paperwork.
  * If needed, correct any mistakes or include more information;
    then resubmit the request.

Going to appeal makes sense because generally the appeal places
the application before more experienced persons in the
decision-making hierarchy. The technology requested is often
new, and the initial examiners in the process may be unaware of
its usefulness. Also, insufficient documentation may have been
provided in the original application, and the problem can be
remedied on appeal.

Don't be daunted by the length of the appeal process. Follow it
through to its completion. In some states, families may be able
to appeal a denial beyond the first level. For example, some
states have "unfair claims settlement practices" regulations,
which are administered through the insurance commissioner's
office.

Always make your appeal in person and take the child and the
equipment if possible. If only part of the money is offered by
one agency, ask another agency to share costs. If the appeal is
denied, try again. Submit the funding request to another agency.
Being persistent will nearly always result in success.

When going through the appeal process, turn to the state
Protection and Advocacy Program (P & A) for guidance and
support. P & A advocates can help make sure that a child's
rights to technology and related services are not denied.

Who pays when assistive technology is needed at school?

The party who is responsible for paying for assistive technology
depends upon the circumstances under which the technology is
purchased. Under the special education law, students with
disabilities who are eligible for special education are entitled
to a free appropriate public education. Parents do not have to
pay for school services, including assistive technology, if that
service is part of the student's Individualized Education
Program (IEP). If the student is eligible for Medicaid, the
school district can request that Medicaid pay for the device. If
parents choose to do so, they may agree to use private insurance
to pay for a device that is used at school. Parents cannot,
however, be forced to use their insurance in this way. If the
private insurance requires a co-payment, the school district
would have to pay this amount since parents should not have to
pay any special education related costs.

Does Section 504 pay for assistive technology?

Section 504, part of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, is
basically a piece of civil rights legislation that is intended
to prevent discrimination against individuals with disabilities
in any program which receives federal funding. Students who have
disabilities, but who do not qualify for special education, may
still be eligible for accommodations under Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504, however, does not
provide any funding for accommodations.

Like the special education law, Section 504 requires public
schools to provide students with disabilities with a free
appropriate public education and, in addition, ensures that
students with disabilities are afforded an equal opportunity to
participate in school programs. For students with disabilities,
this means that schools may need to make special arrangements so
that these students have access to the full range of programs
and activities offered. For example, a student who needs a
wheelchair lift on a school bus to get to school must be
provided with this technology. Other modifications which might
be required under Section 504 include installing ramps into
buildings and modifying bathrooms to provide access for
individuals with physical disabilities. Even though required by
the law, none of these types of modifications would be funded by
Section 504.

Under what circumstances does private health insurance pay for
assistive technology?

Some private health insurance policies will pay all or part of
the cost for some assistive technology devices. The devices are
unlikely to be listed specifically in the policy, but may be
included under some generic term like "therapeutic aids."
Usually the devices have to be prescribed by a physician in
order to be covered by the policy.

When does Medicaid cover assistive technology?

Medicaid (Title XIX) will pay for "prosthetic devices"-that is,
replacement, corrective, or supportive devices prescribed by a
physician or other licensed person. Each state has some
flexibility in determining which prosthetic devices it will
include in its list of Medicaid covered expenses. Devices that
are frequently covered by Medicaid are canes, crutches, walkers,
manual wheelchairs, hospital beds, and hearing aids or
eyeglasses for children and youth.

Summary

Assistive technology can be expensive to purchase, but there are
a number of public and private sources for funding devices.
Common public funding sources include: early childhood
intervention programs, schools, Vocational Rehabilitation, and
Medicaid. Private sources may involve health insurance, personal
loans, charitable donations, or fundraising. It is very
important to provide proper documentation and use correct
wording and procedures when requesting funding. Initial requests
for funding are frequently turned down, but appeals can be
successful.


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TED

Ted is an active four-year old who lives in a small rural
community with his parents and younger sisters. He was
identified as speech impaired and has been attending preschool
special education classes. Ted has normal mental capabilities,
but his mild cerebral palsy impairs his ability to speak.
Because of the speech therapy he has received, Ted is able to
make some speech sounds but he says no intelligible words. He
uses sign to communicate with his special education teacher and
his parents. No one else in his community uses sign, so Ted is
limited in his ability to communicate with others.

As Ted's IEP Team looks ahead to his entry into elementary
school, the Team recognizes that he will need better
communication skills in order to participate successfully in the
regular classroom. His speech therapist has recommended that Ted
begin to use an AlphaTalker.

     What funding sources might pay for the AlphaTalker?

     What case could you make for funding? Are there any
     obstacles to seeking funding?

TED'S SOLUTION

At this point Ted's ability to communicate is somewhat
primitive. Because of his cerebral palsy, he is not able to make
conventional signs so the gestures he makes are understood only
by those who know him well. A simple electronic communication
device may work for Ted but there are some prerequisite
communication skills he will have to master first. Augmentative
communication devices operate on the principle of choosing icons
(abstract symbols) that represent certain basic communications
like a cup to indicate "I want a drink."

In order to make a picture/symbol system meaningful and
functional for Ted at his young age, his speech therapist began
to work on point-to-object and point-to-picture activities. When
Ted had mastered point-to-picture activities, his therapist made
a picture ring for him. On the ring were picture symbols (icons)
for things that Ted might want to say. Ted's family, his
teacher, and his classmates began to ask him to use his pictures
to explain what he wanted. Soon Ted was using pictures to
communicate simple wants and needs effectively. His word ring
went with him everywhere and helped him to "talk" to people he
did not know as well as to friends and family members.

An unexpected bonus to the picture practice is that Ted is
verbalizing more and his speech has become more intelligible. He
has even begun to sing! An electronic communication device may
be in Ted's future but for now he is learning to communicate
well with his picture ring and some spoken words.

Solution Summary

     Point-to-picture practice

     Use of picture ring.


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GLORIA

Gloria, an eighteen year-old with mild cognitive delays and CP,
is about to finish high school. She has been using a laptop
computer and switch access hardware and software in lieu of a
pencil and paper to complete work in high school. The equipment
and software were provided by the school district through the
IEP process. Gloria's current goal, articulated in her
Individual Transition Plan (ITP) as mandated by IDEA, is to have
a full-time job by the time she is 22. She wants to work in an
office and would use a computer system similar to her current
setup. As she moves into the transition period, these questions
must be addressed:

     Will the laptop computer she has been using be
     functional for her in the workplace?

     Will she need to consider new equipment? What would
     influence a decision to purchase new equipment?

     What funding sources might help Gloria to purchase new
     equipment?

     What case should Gloria make for funding?

GLORIA'S SOLUTION

Gloria is fortunate to have learned computer and word processing
skills while she was in school. Now she must learn ways to
transfer these skills into the work setting. Laptop computers
are not typical in offices; instead what Gloria is more likely
to encounter is a desktop workstation with computer and printer.
In order to use a standard computer, Gloria will need a switch
access device and an onscreen keyboard to do word processing and
data entry.

Since single switch access is necessary for Gloria to become
employed in an office setting, Gloria's Vocational
Rehabilitation Counselor was willing to make such a purchase for
her. Gloria applied to be a data processor with a temporary
employment firm and got the job. Gloria's VR counselor helped
her to select switch access hardware compatible with most IBM
compatible computers. In her new job, Gloria changes office
settings frequently. Each time she moves, she takes her switch
access device and onscreen keyboard software with her. With
these portable items, she is able to adapt each new office
setting to meet her needs. Having the right technology has made
Gloria an adaptable and successful temporary office employee.

Solution Summary

     Switch access

     Onscreen keyboard software.


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Making Assistive Technology a Part of Child's Education

The ideal time for a child with a disability to learn to use
assistive technology is when the child is learning all sorts of
others skills in early intervention services, preschool, and
K-12 education. Children who are eligible for early intervention
services under Part C or special education under Part B of the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are entitled
to be evaluated for assistive technology needs and to receive
assistive technology devices and services if they are necessary
to providing a free, appropriate public education. In order for
children to receive the assistive technology to which they are
entitled, parents must be knowledgeable about how assistive
technology fits into special education and the ways that AT can
be included in a child's Individualized Family Service Plan
(IFSP) or Individualized Education Program (IEP).

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

Parents are often surprised to learn that assistive technology
can be appropriate for infants and toddlers. Very young children
who have disabilities that limit their ability to interact with
the environment by crawling, touching, seeing, or hearing can
benefit from technology that improves their interactions.
Federal education amendments require states to "promote the use
of assistive technology devices and assistive technology
services, where appropriate, to enhance the development of
infants and toddlers with disabilities." These amendments
further require states to "facilitate the transition of infants
with disabilities...from medical care to early intervention
services, and the transition from early intervention services to
preschool special education or regular education services."

When Kayla was an infant, her interactions with the environment
were very limited because she has a genetic condition resulting
in abnormally short arms and legs. She could not turn over or
crawl; she had difficulty touching and grasping objects. As part
of her early intervention program, Kayla was introduced at the
age of six months to the use of switches. When the switches were
positioned correctly, she could activate switch-operated toys or
noisemakers. The opportunity to interact with toys opened up
Kayla's world. She soon began to hunt for the switches and to
activate certain toys on command. She used the switches to make
choices between toys or sounds. She became verbally more
expressive and began to interact more readily and more often
with her parents and siblings.

By the time that Kayla was three and ready for preschool special
education, she was able to sit up and interact with a computer
activated by switches. She could identify objects on the
computer screen and match those objects to real objects in the
world around her. At three, Kayla could identify and match some
letters and shapes on the computer screen. Though limited in her
mobility, Kayla became an active participant in classroom
activities. She could interact with classmates by playing
computer games, joining in at circle time, and participating in
all preacademic learning activities.

Assistive technology was an integral and necessary part of
Kayla's early intervention services. Kayla's parents were
involved in writing the Individualized Family Service Plans
(IFSPs) that outlined the services Kayla and their family
needed. From the beginning, Kayla's family had the opportunity
to see how assistive technology could be included in the IFSP
and really make a difference in Kayla's education and her life.

Kayla's story illustrates how assistive technology can be
utilized from an early age and can be part of the transition
from medical treatment to early intervention and from early
intervention into preschool special education or regular
education. Because of the availability of early intervention
services, there is no reason to wait until a child is of school
age before trying assistive technology. Early use of the
necessary technology will enhance a child's development by
increasing opportunities to interact with the environment.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY AT SCHOOL AGE AND BEYOND

When students enter kindergarten and begin their regular public
school years, assistive technology can continue to be a part of
their special education programs. For students who are eligible
for special education, assistive technology must be provided
when it is necessary:

(1) to support placement in the least restrictive environment,

(2) to ensure that a student benefits from his or her education,
or

(3) to implement the goals and objectives in the student's IEP.

Needs for assistive technology should be one of the
considerations when a student is assessed to determine
eligibility for special education. If an assessment reveals that
a student is eligible for special education, then the
multi-disciplinary team should consider assistive technology
needs when making recommendations for the Individualized
Education Program (IEP). The team should analyze what is
required of nondisabled students of the same age and determine
how many of these requirements could be completely or partially
fulfilled by the student being assessed if that student had
access to appropriate assistive technology.

In addition, when information is being collected for the present
level of performance section of the IEP, part of that assessment
should be a consideration of whether or not assistive technology
is necessary for the student to achieve educational or social
goals, benefit from education, or make reasonable progress in
the least restrictive educational setting. Whoever is collecting
the information might experiment with assistive technology
applications to determine which ones might work for the
particular student.

Assistive technology should be considered as an option for every
IEP. Some students, of course, will not require technology, but
many students will benefit from technology that helps them to
compensate for their impairments. School districts are not
required to provide all of the possible assistive devices that
might be nice to have or might provide the best possible
arrangements. Assistive technology is required, however, when
its presence enables the student to make reasonable progress
toward the goals the IEP Team identifies.

HOW TO INCLUDE ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY IN THE IEP

Assistive technology can be included in the IEP in a number of
ways. It may appear as part of the student's annual goals or
short term objectives. It may also appear in a list of specific
accommodations which need to be made in order for the student to
function in the least restrictive environment. For example, the
IEP might include such accommodations as the use of word
processing, use of a calculator, use of a hand held spell
checker and so forth. In addition, the IEP may specify that as a
related service necessary for the student to benefit from his or
her education, the student will receive training in the use of
assistive equipment like an electronic communication device, a
power wheelchair, or a personal computer.

WHERE TO PUT ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY IN THE IEP

There are three places in the IEP where assistive technology may
appear: (1) in the annual goals and short term objectives, (2)
in the enumeration of supplementary aids and services necessary
to maintain the student in the least restrictive educational
setting, and (3) in the list of related services necessary for
the student to benefit from his or her education

Assistive technology can be a part of the annual goals and short
term objectives on an IEP, but there must be a certain degree of
specificity in the goal in order for the role of assistive
technology to be clear. An annual goal for the IEP should
express an estimate of what the student can accomplish in a
particular domain during the course of one year, under what
conditions the skill is to be developed, and what criteria will
be used to indicate whether or not the skill has been learned.

Many times IEP goals are broad, vague, and totally nonspecific.
Such goals are impossible to measure and do not give any
indication of what is realistic to expect in terms of the
student's behavior or skill level in the course of a year's
time. Such broad goals are not useful in addressing assistive
technology. The inclusion of assistive technology in the IEP
requires a degree of specificity so that it is clear how and why
the technology will be used to accomplish a particular goal.

An annual goal which includes assistive technology may indicate
that the technology will be part of the conditions under which
some academic or social skill will be acquired. For example, an
IEP goal for a student with a learning disability in written
expression may look like this:

     1.0 Using a word processing program with spelling
     checker, Shawn will compose three paragraph themes
     composed of fifteen or more sentences with 80% or
     better accuracy in the use of spelling, punctuation
     and grammar.

Objectives leading to this goal might include preliminary
exploration of the word processing program; trials to learn
effective use of the spelling checker; drill and practice in
writing single paragraphs to the 80% level of accuracy in
spelling, punctuation and grammar; increasing the length of
writing to two paragraphs; and then eventually moving to three
paragraphs with gradually increasing degrees of accuracy.

Another type of annual goal may address a skill which is
necessary for using assistive technology. Such a goal might
appear this way:

     2.0 Using an adapted computer keyboard, Rachel will
     type 12 words per minute with no errors over 10 or
     more consecutive trials.

In this case, Rachel would spend a year learning keyboarding
skills with the goal of achieving at least 12 words per minute
with complete accuracy. For a young student who experiences some
fine motor difficulties, this goal would be challenging but it
might be achievable in a year's time. Objectives leading to this
goal might involve preliminary exploration of the keyboard,
gradual introduction of the letters and numbers on the keyboard,
practice to build speed and accuracy, and eventually timed
trials until 10 consecutive trials could be achieved with no
errors at a rate of 12 words per minute or better.

Still another type of annual goal might address a social issue
like communication with peers.

     3.0 Using an electronic communication device, Sara
     will respond appropriately to social inquiries from
     classmates 5 times out of 5 opportunities over 5
     consecutive days.

Objectives leading to this goal might include training in the
use of particular words and phrases on the communication device,
drill and practice in responding with the device in structured
settings, increasing accuracy in responding in structured
settings, practice in unstructured conversational opportunities,
and gradual achievement of accuracy in unstructured
conversational settings with peers.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY AS A RELATED SERVICE

Assistive technology can be a related service just like
audiology, physical therapy, or speech if it is necessary for
the student to benefit from his or her education. For a student
to be successful in using assistive technology, he or she must
be trained in its use. Training to use a computer, an
augmentative communication device, a Phonic Ear, or large type
viewer or other similar devices can occur as a related service
which supports the student's educational program. Preparation
for the use of assistive technology can also be worked into
other related services like occupational therapy. Occupational
therapy may involve determining correct positioning to take
advantage of assistive technology and exercises to prepare the
student to use a computer keyboard or a communication board.

Margo, who has muscular dystrophy, uses a laptop computer every
day in her sixth grade class. Margo's upper body strength is
diminishing, and she is gradually having greater and greater
difficulty using her hands for writing or drawing. Using a
computer saves her energy and allows her to keep performing well
in the classroom. As a related service in her IEP, Margo is
receiving occupational therapy designed to prepare her for even
more adaptations which may be necessary as she loses more
strength. Margo and her therapist are experimenting with
computer access devices (e.g., switches, trackball) and on
screen keyboards to determine what method Margo would like to
use when her hands are no longer strong enough to type on a
standard keyboard. This special training for assistive
technology is written into Margo's IEP as a related service
because such training is necessary for her to continue to
benefit from her education.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT FOR PLACEMENT IN THE LEAST
RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT

One important feature of assistive technology is the fact that
it can make it easier for students with and without disabilities
to learn together. Students with disabilities are guaranteed the
right to be with nondisabled peers and to receive their
education in the setting which is the least restrictive
environment. In order to be successful in the least restrictive
environment, students are to be afforded whatever supplementary
aids and services are necessary. Among the supplementary aids
which may allow a student to remain in a less restrictive
environment are a variety of assistive devices that compensate
for disability and allow the student to perform educational and
social tasks. Assistive technology is necessary as a
supplementary aid if its presence (along with other necessary
aids) supports the student sufficiently to maintain the
placement, and its absence requires the student's removal to a
more restrictive setting. For example, if a student with
multiple physical disabilities can make progress on his or her
IEP goals in the regular classroom with the use of a computer
and an augmentative communication device and cannot make such
progress in that setting without the devices, then those devices
are necessary supplementary aids.

Lyle, a fourth grader with cerebral palsy, is a good example of
a student who thrives in the regular classroom if he has the use
of appropriate technology. Lyle is able to keep up academically
with his classmates if he has access to a computer with an
adapted keyboard and word prediction software. Lyle has learned
to type well and is able to do written assignments in relatively
the same amount of time as other students in his class. Without
a computer, Lyle could not keep up at all. Handwriting is a
laborious task for Lyle and his written product tends to be
messy and barely readable. If he could not use a computer, Lyle
would have to rely on others to do handwriting for him or he
would have to do alternative assignments that require no writing.

Lyle likes being a regular fourth grader. He is proud of his
writing on the computer because he is using his own words and
learning to edit out his mistakes by himself. With his computer,
he does not need the services of an aide and can be completely
independent in doing his school work.

Assistive technology in the form of a computer with appropriate
software and keyboard adaptations is necessary for Lyle to
remain in the regular classroom, working independently. This use
of the computer can be written into his IEP as a supplementary
aid which is necessary to support Lyle's placement in the least
restrictive environment.

Does assistive technology include access to school buildings?

AT certainly can mean devices that provide access to school
buildings and facilities. One important part of a free,
appropriate, public education is that students with disabilities
are able to get to school, get into the school, and use the
school building and facilities. Assistive technology can be used
to provide access to the school bus, classroom, playground,
gymnasium, auditorium, lunchroom or the equipment in them. Any
or all of these needs can be addressed in the IEP.

Bus modifications for improved access and appropriate seating
can help with transportation to and from school and school
activities. Doors, walkways, handles, switches, stairs, steps,
can be modified so that a student with disabilities can use them
as effectively as classmates. Appropriate seating and playground
modifications can help include students who have disabilities at
classroom, lunchroom and recess times.

When an individual graduates from public school, is it still
possible to have assistive technology?

If individuals benefit from the use of assistive technology
during their school years, the likelihood is that assistive
technology will be even more important for them in adult living.
Assistive technology can certainly be part of an individual's
future after high school, but it is necessary to begin planning
for the transition from high school so that the technology and
other necessary services are available when needed.

The earlier a family can estimate their child's post-high school
needs, including needs for technology, the earlier transition
planning can begin. Federal legislation says that transition
planning can begin in school as early as "14 or younger." Each
student with a disability who has an Individualized Education
Program (IEP) should have a "statement of transition
services...beginning no later than age 16." This means that as
early as middle school, but probably not later than freshman
year in high school, families should begin transition planning.

Unlike school services, services in the adult world are not
mandated. An individual may be eligible for a disability
service, but not receive it because all of the slots are filled
or funding is not available. If an individual does not own his
or her own assistive technology devices, then part of transition
planning will be looking into funding sources that could help
with technology purchases. If technology is necessary for the
individual to become employed, it is possible that Vocational
Rehabilitation will pay for the devices as part of an Individual
Work-Related Plan (IWRP). Students who go on to postsecondary
education at community college, vocational-technical schools or
universities can expect to be able to receive certain
accommodations for their disabilities while on campus. Most
postsecondary institutions have Student Support Services that
help with assistive technology needs, alternative testing,
readers and notetakers.

Summary

Assistive technology can be included as an integral part of a
student's education, but parents have to be knowledgeable about
how to go about getting assistive technology into their
children's educational plans. Assistive technology can be
written into the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) for
infants and toddlers in early intervention programs and into the
Individualized Education Program (IEP) for preschoolers and
students in grades K through 12. Assistive technology can appear
in three places in the IEP: (a) as part of the goals and
objectives, (b) as a supplementary aid to support placement in
the least restrictive environment, and (c) as a related service.
Assistive technology can also be a part of students' transition
planning as they move from high school into adult pursuits.
Assistive technology is available through Vocational
Rehabilitation and other adult disability services, but these
services are not mandated. To ensure continued use of assistive
technology, it is important to plan ahead and secure funding for
devices needed in the work or postsecondary education
environments.

Hints for Parents

If your child is a successful assistive technology user, begin
to save money early in your child's life--just as you might save
for college. Gradually accumulate enough funding to purchase the
kinds of technology your child will need as an adult. Technology
changes so fast that it is impossible to predict what will be
available fifteen years from now. But a parent can be certain
that assistive technology of the future will be even better than
what is available today.


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Emily

Emily is a seventh grade student who has learning disabilities.
She is in regular classes all day in her neighborhood middle
school. A special education teacher monitors Emily's progress
and provides the regular classroom teachers with assistance by
modifying some of Emily's assignments, giving her oral tests,
helping to organize Emily's work, and reteaching certain skills,
as necessary. In elementary school, Emily did well with the
limited amount of support she received in the regular classroom.
In middle school, however, she is having trouble keeping up with
assignments. Emily's spelling is inaccurate; she often misspells
the same word three or four different ways on the same page. Her
handwriting is very slow and laborious so she spends many hours
each evening working on her homework. She has tried tape
recording assignments, but she finds this process also to be
laborious because it is so time consuming to correct mistakes.

It has been recommended that Emily be removed from some of her
academic classes and receive instruction in the resource
program. Emily wants to remain in regular classes, but she can't
keep up with the pace.

     How could assistive technology help Emily?

     What are her needs?

     What case could be made for assistive technology for
     her?

Emily's Solution

Emily has reached the point in her educational career when she
cannot keep pace with the demands of the written work. On
observing Emily, the occupational therapist noted that it took
Emily five times as long as the average student in her English
class to complete written assignments.

Emily's IEP Team decided she was spending far too much time on
the handwriting process. To help her with this problem, the team
agreed that Emily should learn to use a computer with a word
processing program and a voiced spell checker. One period per
day, Emily goes to the resource room to practice keyboarding and
work on longer written assignments. During her regular classes,
Emily uses a portable word processor (e.g., AlphaSmart) to take
notes which she can print out later in the resource room.

These simple solutions allow Emily to speed up her writing time
and produce written work that is easy to correct and edit. With
technology to aid her, Emily is spending less time on the
handwriting process and more time on thinking and processing
information. Her homework time has been cut in half and Emily is
much more relaxed and confident at school.

Solution Summary

     Keyboarding training

     Use of computer with word processing software

     Use of voiced spell checker

     Use of portable word processor.


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Bryan

Bryan is a seventh grader with a neuro-muscular disease that has
caused him to lose physical function. He is a bright student
with excellent academic skills. Bryan uses a laptop computer
with a trackball and an onscreen keyboard to do all his written
work. He navigates skillfully around the school building using a
power wheelchair. Technology has really helped Bryan to fit in
and do well at school. However, now as a young adolescent, Bryan
is beginning to feel left out socially. He requires so much help
with his physical needs that he has to spend lots of time with
adults. Bryan wants to "hang out" like the other kids his age
and escape adult scrutiny once in a while.

Bryan is nonverbal. He uses a complex, sophisticated electronic
communication device to participate in class. The device is
programmed with phrases that Bryan frequently uses and he also
can select icons to create sentences of his own. Bryan's
communication device works well for him in formal, classroom
settings but it is bulky and cumbersome to use in casual
conversation with friends. Bryan has come to believe that his
communication device is actually a barrier to the kinds of
informal interactions he wants to have.

Bryan knows that he has the best in technology and that the
equipment he uses was very expensive. He doesn't want to appear
"greedy" or demanding so he has not told his parents about his
dissatisfaction with his ability to communicate. One of Bryan's
friends, Michael, however, noticed that Bryan was acting pensive
and unusually quiet. Michael gently coaxed the truth out of
Bryan and offered to help his friend think of a new way to
"talk" that would provide him with more flexibility and
independence.

Bryan's Solution

When Bryan and Michael put their heads together, they came up
with lots of ideas. The one they settled on as the most feasible
involved using the laptop that Bryan already had. The laptop had
some advantages because it was small and portable and Bryan
already knew how to use it very well. In a catalog of special
needs software, the friends found communication software that
operated on an icon system and the price was right--around $100.
With communication software installed on the laptop, Bryan had a
simpler,more portable device for talking in casual settings.

Next Michael asked his father to help them make a tray for
Bryan's wheelchair that would hold the laptop and fold down
beside the chair out of the way when not in use. Michael's dad
came up with a clever tray on hinges that folded to the side.
The laptop fastened to the tray with wide rubber bands. A handle
on the tray allowed Bryan to raise and lower the tray as needed.

In addition to his laptop, Bryan also needed a device for quick
greetings and spontaneous retorts. Bryan and Michael chose a
programmable switch with the capacity to record up to 12
messages. Bryan could operate the switch quickly by hitting it
with his elbow. He and Michael had a great time recording
messages suitable for talking to their friends or to girls.

What Bryan found out was that he needed multiple ways to
communicate so that he could customize his electronic speech to
fit the setting and the occasion. For a relatively small
financial investment, Bryan and Michael were able to expand
communication possibilities for Bryan and allow him greater
control and personal choice about what he said, how he said it,
and to whom.

Solution Summary

     Communication software

     Drop-down wheelchair tray

     Programmable switch


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Tracy

Tracy is a man in his mid-thirties who has been blind from
birth. Since graduating from college, he has held a series of
entry level jobs at minimum wage and without benefits. Tracy is
frustrated by the lack of challenge in the jobs he has had; he
would like to have a managerial position with some opportunities
for advancement, better pay, and benefits.

Currently Tracy is working at a Pizza Hut restaurant where he
prepares pizzas for the oven. He enjoys his co-workers and
regular customers, but Tracy wants more. A management trainee
opening has been announced in the company newsletter and Tracy
decides to apply. This new position involves taking pizza orders
over the telephone and sending the order via computer and modem
to the appropriate Pizza Hut outlet where the pizzas will be
made. Having made every possible type and size of pizza, Tracy
is very familiar with the options. But how could he operate the
computer and record orders as they come in over the telephone?
Would he have a chance for this job which could be his first
step up?

Tracy's Solution

Tracy and his Vocational Rehabilitation Counselor filled out the
job application for the position at Pizza Hut's central ordering
facility and Tracy was called to set up an interview. Prior to
the interview, Tracy and his job counselor went to the central
ordering facility for Pizza Hut to study aspects of the job and
to determine if technology could assist Tracy to perform the
essential job functions. The job involved the following steps:
(1) greeting the customer and taking down customer information,
(2) asking a series of questions about the customer's order
(e.g., type, size, toppings), (3) simultaneous recording of the
order via computer, and (4) sending the order to the appropriate
Pizza Hut outlet.

After studying the process of taking orders, Tracy and his
counselor decided upon the following technology:

(a) A computer compatible with the Pizza Hut network;

(b) Voiced software so that Tracy could "hear" what he was
typing;

(c) A telephone headset to listen to the customer with one ear;

(d) an ear piece to listen to the computer.

At his interview for the job, Tracy explained his qualifications
for the position--college degree, experience with Pizza Hut. He
also told the interview team about how technology would allow
him to do the job as efficiently and effectively as other
workers.

The interview team members were impressed by Tracy's initiative
and his work ethic. They chose him over several other qualified
candidates. Though it took some detective work to put together a
computer/software package compatible with Pizza Hut's system,
Tracy was able to do it.

>From the first day on the job, Tracy knew he was going to like
it better than anything he had done before. Listening to the
computer and the customer simultaneously was challenging at
first, but soon Tracy had mastered the process. After three
months in his new position, Tracy was asked to become the
manager for his shift. Now he hires and trains new order clerks,
schedules workers and evaluates their job performance. Tracy has
what he wanted--a managerial position, better wages, and a
future with the company.

Solution Summary

     Compatible computer terminal

     Voiced software

     Telephone headset

     Ear piece for computer.


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Advocating for Assistive Technology

In the area of Assistive Technology -- just as in so many areas
of need -- parents must be their children's best advocates.
Federal and state laws support providing assistive technology to
individuals with disabilities, but these laws are only
meaningful when parents know about them and can use legal
processes to secure their children's rights. Here are just a few
of the laws on which parents can rely when advocating for
assistive technology for their children:

THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) proposes to eliminate
"...discrimination against individuals with disabilities..to
address the major areas of discrimination faced day-to-day by
people with disabilities." The ADA applies specifically to the
areas of employment, public accommodations, and government
functions. In these areas, the ADA requires that reasonable
accommodations be made so that people with disabilities can have
an equal opportunity to participate in employment opportunities,
public accommodations, and government functions. The ADA's
definition of "auxiliary aids and services," its mandates for
"acquisition or modifications of equipment and devices" and
"reasonable accommodations" support the provision of assistive
technology devices and services to individuals with disabilities.

THE REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act requires that any "program
or activity receiving Federal financial assistance" comply with
non-discrimination rules. Section 504 Regulations require that
public schools provide students who have disabilities an
educational opportunity equal to the educational opportunity
provided to students without disabilities. Section 504 also uses
the term "reasonable accommodations" which can mean the
provision of assistive technology devices and services.

THE INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT (IDEA)

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires
free, appropriate, public education (FAPE) for students with
disabilities. IDEA mandates education in the least restrictive
environment, requires schools to use supplementary aids and
services, special and related services to help assure that
students with disabilities participate in and benefit from
public education. Assistive technology is specifically mentioned
in IDEA as a service which school districts may have to provide
in order for a student with disabilities to benefit from special
education.

THE CARL PERKINS ACT

The Carl Perkins Act assures that Vocational Education programs
in public schools are made accessible to students with
disabilities. The law assures supplementary services including
classroom, curriculum and equipment modifications, supportive
personnel, instructional aides and instructional devices.

PARENT RESPONSIBILITIES

In order to be effective advocates for their children, parents
need to familiarize themselves with all the laws that support
the provision of assistive technology. Copies of the laws and
their regulations are available from the offices of members of
the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Besides knowing the law, parents must participate actively in
developing plans for their children's education that include
assistive technology, when it is needed. Parents must attend
IFSP and IEP meetings and be prepared to work cooperatively with
other team members. When a parent questions an assistive
technology evaluation or an IEP Team recommendation, the parent
must be prepared to follow-up on those questions, including
using due process rights, when necessary.

What should a parent do when an agency refuses to pay for
assistive technology that a child needs?

Agencies like early intervention programs and school districts
are mandated to provide assistive technology if the need for
technology is in the child's written plan. If one of these
agencies refuses to pay for needed technology, then a parent
must consider using due process rights. In early intervention
services, the parent would follow the appeal process laid out by
the lead agency for Part C. When school district services are
involved, the parent can file a complaint if services in the IEP
are not provided or can ask for a due process hearing if the
parent and the school district disagree about the need for
assistive technology. If a parent disagrees with the results of
an evaluation for assistive technology, the parent can ask for
an independent evaluation at school district expense.

Summary

Overall, getting the devices and services for children with
disabilities means that parents must be part of the planning
team at every level of their children's education. It means
talking with other families and users of assistive technology
about devices and services, learning how they found the best
technology, and figuring out where to go when resources are few.
Getting assistive devices and services is not always an easy
job. But help is available. Working with professionals, talking
with consumers and other families, parents can find the best
avenues for providing their children with the assistive
technology they need. In the end the effort is worth it because
assistive technology is not just a civil right guaranteed by
law; it is also a means to achieve human rights to grow up
happy, independent and self-sufficient as possible.

Hints for Parents

When advocating for your child in the special education arena,
don't forget the following facts about assistive technology and
the IEP:

  * Assistive technology needs must be considered along with a
    student's other educational needs.
  * Needs for technology must be identified on an individual
    basis.
  * Identification of technology needs must involve parents, the
    student when appropriate, and a multidisciplinary team.
  * Parents or other IEP Team members can ask for additional
    evaluation or an independent evaluation to determine
    assistive technology needs.
  * When an evaluation is being conducted, consider mobility,
    fine-motor skills, communication, and alternatives to
    traditional learning approaches.
  * Lack of availability of equipment or cost alone cannot be
    used as an excuse for denying assistive technology services.
  * If included in the IEP, assistive technology services and
    devices must be provided at no cost to the family.
  * Parents always have the right to appeal if assistive
    technology services are denied.


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More Questions and Answers

Are schools required to pay for assistive technology devices and
services?

It is the responsibility of the school district to provide for
the equipment, services or programs identified in the IEP. The
school district may pay for the equipment, service or programs
itself; utilize other resources to provide or pay for the
device; or utilize private insurance funds, Medicaid, or other
sources of funds as long as the device or services identified in
the IEP are provided at no cost to the parent. Private insurance
or Medicaid may be used ony if the parent agrees.

Can schools require the parents to pay for an assistive
technology device or service identified in the student's IEP or
require the parents to use their own private health insurance to
pay for the device or service?

No. The "free" in FAPE means that parents of students with
disabilities who require assistive technology devices or
services do not have to pay for these items. As stated in IDEA
and its regulations, all special education and related services
identified in the student's IEP must be provided "at no cost to
the parent." The term "free" is interpreted broadly and goes far
beyond the simple paying of deductibles and co-payments. The
courts have interpreted "free" to apply to, but not be limited
to, future insurability, depletion of maximum lifetime caps,
raised premiums, discontinuation of policies, and preexisting
condition exclusions. If the family agrees to allow the school
to access their Medicaid or private insurance, this decision
must be strictly voluntary on the part of the family.

How can school districts use Medicaid funds to purchase
assistive technology devices?

If Medicaid is capitated in any way concerning its use for
assistive devices, school districts must request from parents
the right to use Medicaid funds. However, parents are not
obligated to use their Medicaid funds to purchase devices or
services used at school. With permission, a parent's private
insurance must be accessed before Medicaid can be used for
assistive technology devices. Medicaid regulations vary somewhat
from state to state so it is wise to consult the state Medicaid
Service Bureau before making any assumptions about Medicaid and
the purchase of assistive technology.

Are there other options for schools to consider in lieu of
purchasing the assistive technology device?

Yes. There are times when the outright purchase of equipment or
devices is not necessary or even advisable. In such instances,
schools might consider rental or long-term lease options. There
are certain advantages to renting or leasing, depending on the
individual needs of the student. For example, renting equipment
might be a reasonable strategy if the student is expected to
improve or deteriorate in a short period of time, or when it is
necessary to try out the equipment before purchase. Long-term
leasing or lease/purchase agreements also have potential
benefits for schools which include: no obligation on behalf of
the school to purchase the device; ability to return leased
equipment and thus reduce obsolete inventory; flexible leasing
terms; use of equipment without a lump-sum purchase; upgrading
of equipment as more improved technology becomes available; and
upgrading of equipment as the student's needs change.

Isn't assistive technology just a crutch? Won't students become
too dependent on technology and not learn to use the skills they
have?

Assistive technology should be used as support for access,
learning and performing daily tasks. In general, assistive
technology is appropriate when it compensates for disabilities
so that the individual can function as normally as possible. If
assistive technology is necessary for a student to have access
to educational opportunities or to benefit from education, then
it is not a "crutch" but a legitimate support. Some skills are
too laborious or taxing to accomplish at a rate or with degree
of proficiency to allow for participation in the least
restrictive environment. With assistive technology, the student
can participate more fully and more closely approximate the
levels of achievement and interaction of his or her peers. In
general, the use of assistive technology enhances function and
increases skills and opportunities. Though a student may be
dependent upon a particular device in order to perform
skillfully, denying the device denies the student an opportunity
ever to achieve success at the level of his or her potential.

When is assistive technology appropriate?

Assistive technology may be considered appropriate when it does
any or all of the following things:

  * Enables students to perform functions that can be achieved
    by no other means
  * Enables students to approximate normal fluency, rate, or
    standards--a level of accomplishment which could not be
    achieved by any other means
  * Provides access for participation in programs or activities
    which otherwise would be closed to the individual
  * Increases endurance or ability to persevere and complete
    tasks that otherwise are too laborious to be attempted on a
    routine basis
  * Enables students to concentrate on learning tasks, rather
    than mechanical tasks
  * Provides greater access to information
  * Supports normal social interactions with peers and adults
  * Supports participation in the least restrictive educational
    environment.

Who owns the special equipment that is purchased for students?

If the school district purchases the equipment, the equipment
belongs to the district. Some school districts designate that a
particular device is to be used by a specific student during the
time when that device remains appropriate for that student.
Other districts have "pools" of assistive devices and distribute
them for use by a variety of students. The distribution and use
of devices is under the district's control as long as the needs
described in students' IEPs are being met.

If devices are purchased for a particular student using that
student's Medicaid funds or private insurance, then the device
belongs to the student and is meant for the exclusive use of
that student.

When a student moves from one level of schooling to another like
elementary school to middle school, does the device follow the
student?

If an assistive device is necessary in order to fulfill the
requirements of a student's IEP, such a device must be provided
in whatever school the student attends. The same device may not
necessarily follow the student from one school to another, but a
comparable device which fulfills the IEP requirements would have
to be provided in the new school that the student attends.

If a family moves from one school district to another, can a
student's assistive technology go along?

Devices bought by the school belong to the school, not the
student who uses them. When a family moves from one school
district to another, the equipment the student has been using
does not automatically move to the new school.

Assistive equipment can go with a student to a new school if the
sending school district agrees to sell or give the device to the
family or the new school district.

If the device was purchased by the family, through the family's
private health insurance or by Medicaid for this particular
student, then the device belongs to the student and can go with
the student to a new school district.

What happens to assistive technology devices when students leave
the school system at graduation?

If the school district purchased the device, the device is the
property of the school. The school could keep the device for use
by other students, sell it or decide to transfer the device to
another district or loan program. If the family or another
funding source purchased the device, it is the property of the
student and the family.

If a piece of assistive technology is no longer needed or
relevant to a student and the device was paid for by Medicaid or
private insurance, can it be donated for another student's
benefit?

Yes, it is a parental decision. The parents could donate the
device to the school for use by other students with disabilities
or to some other organization which loans out equipment.

Can assistive devices be insured?

Many school district liability policies will cover devices
purchased by the district for student use. Devices purchased by
other funding sources may or may not be covered while on school
premises or involved in school activities. It is important for
school staff to investigate the district's property insurance to
determine what the policy currently covers and whether or not
the policy insures against loss or damage of assistive devices.

Parents who own assistive devices that are used at home and at
school may also wish to purchase home owners or renters'
insurance with a special rider that covers damage to or loss of
the device.

Who is responsible for the repair and maintenance of assistive
devices?

In general, the school district is responsible for repair and
maintenance of assistive devices used to support educational
programs described in the IEP or covered by Section 504.

If a device is broken and is beyond repair, who replaces the
broken device?

If an assistive device is necessary for the student's IEP to be
implemented, then the school district will have to replace a
broken, lost, or stolen device.

If a device is broken and sent off for repairs, must the school
district supply a substitute device until the original device is
returned?

If the assistive technology device is vital to the student's
daily special education program, it is not reasonable for the
student to be without a device for long periods of time. If a
device is going to be unavailable for more than a day or two,
the district should provide a backup machine which allows the
student to continue working on IEP goals.

Is the school district obligated to train substitute teachers
and aides to operate assistive technology devices?

Again, if the assistive technology device is vital to the
student's daily special education program, it is not reasonable
for the student not to be able to use the device for long
periods of time because a substitute is teaching the class. If
the substitute is only going to be in the classroom for a day or
two, it is probably not necessary to provide elaborate training.
However, if the substitute is going to be in the classroom for
an extended time, training should be provided.

Must school districts allow students to take assistive devices
home on school nights to do homework? Over weekends? During
school vacations? Over the summer?

In many cases, it is desirable for students to have the
opportunity to use the same assistive technology devices at home
and in school. For example, when a student is completing
homework assignments, assistive technology may be necessary to
produce the type of product that is required. Some school
districts have policies which allow the devices to go home with
the students overnight, on weekends, or during vacation or
summer periods. In general, these kinds of policies are a local
district matter and may be determined according to local
district needs. If, however, a student's IEP includes a
provision which says the student is to have access to an
assistive device both at school and at home, then the school
district would be obligated to allow the student to take a
device home or provide two devices, one for home use and one for
school.

What professionals are considered qualified to assess a student
in the area of assistive technology?

Because assistive technology is such a new field, there are no
national standards and few local or state standards for
licensing or certification for specialists in assistive
technology. However, school districts often have professionals
who have received training in conducting assistive technology
evaluations and are able to provide the services identified in
the IEP. If a district does not have personnel who are
knowledgeable in conducting such evaluations, the district can
arrange for such services from other knowledgeable providers-
such as, Independent Living Projects, Alliance for Technology
Access Centers, or Tech Act Projects.

How can one distinguish between assistive technology and
personal items (e.g., wheelchairs, hearing aids, eyeglasses,
crutches)?

Currently, IDEA does not make a clear distinction between
assistive technology devices and personal items. This confusion
stems in large part from IDEA's broad definition of assistive
technology. For example, if a student with a disability needs
eye glasses in order to obtain FAPE, then the school district is
obligated to provide them at no cost to the parents. In general,
however, school districts do not purchase personally prescribed
devices such as hearing aids or glasses.

Who determines how assistive technology will be purchased and
with what available funding resources--the IEP Team or school
administration?

Once the IEP team makes the determination that assistive
technology must be provided as part of the student's IEP, it is
the responsibility of school administration to determine how the
assistive technology will be provided and with which funding
sources.

Is a school district responsible for providing "state of the
art" equipment for a student?

No. The school district need provide only appropriate technology
in order to meet the student's needs as described in the IEP.
The decision as to what type of assistive technology is
appropriate should be based on the assistive technology
evaluation recommendations and IEP team decision. There may be
"devices" or features of equipment which may be nice for the
student to have, but if they are not necessary for FAPE, the
school district is not obligated to provide them. If a specific
device is necessary to ensure FAPE and no other device can meet
the student's needs, then the district must provide the required
device, even though it is costly. If a less expensive device
would accomplish the same goals, the IEP team is under no
obligation to choose a more expensive option.

If a student needs a computer, can a school owned computer be
used in the lab or classroom?

Yes, a school owned computer can be used if the student has
access to the equipment when he or she needs it. If the student
does not have the necessary access, then the appropriate
equipment should be purchased for the student's use.

Can school district administrators instruct personnel not to
include costly assistive technology devices in the IEP?

IEP teams are charged with the responsibility for determining a
student's need for assistive technology devices and services,
and for specifying those devices and services. Therefore, it is
important that IEP teams are clearly informed of their
responsibility to determine if a student needs a device and the
need for an assistive technology evaluation to assist in making
the determination. A school district may not have a policy which
prevents IEP teams from identifying a student's need for
assistive devices or services.

How does assistive technology get integrated into the curriculum?

The IEP team needs to discuss how the device will be used by the
student and how it will be integrated into the curriculum. The
IEP team should identify on the IEP how the device will be used
by the student in the classroom. This information should be
shared with the general classroom teachers so that they are
aware of how it is to be used.

How can assistive technology be provided from year to year with
a degree of continuity?

As part of the annual review of the IEP, a point should be made
to devise ways to communicate with next year's teachers about
the technology the student uses and how it should be integrated
into the curriculum. Teachers who are new to working with the
student who uses technology should be provided training if they
are unfamiliar with the device and its use. Training for
teachers and support staff should be written into the IEP as a
related service.

Can an assistive technology device be used by more than one
student?

Yes, if the device is the property of the school district and if
all of the students using the device have access to the
equipment when they need it.

Can an independent evaluation be requested to address assistive
technology?

Yes. The school district is required to evaluate a student in
all areas of suspected disability; including, if appropriate,
evaluating the student's need for assistive technology. A parent
has the right to an independent educational evaluation at public
expense if the parent disagrees with an evaluation obtained by
the school district. However, the school district may initiate a
due process hearing to show that its evaluation is appropriate.
If the final decision is that the evaluation is appropriate, the
parent still has the right to an independent educational
evaluation, but not at public expense. If the parent obtains an
independent educational evaluation at private expense, the
results of the evaluation (a) must be considered by the school
district in any decision made with respect to the provision of
FAPE to the child; and (b) may be presented as evidence at a due
process hearing.

What is a product system?

A product system is more than one piece of equipment working
together to produce a result. For example, an FM system that
works in conjunction with a student's hearing aid is a product
system.

Can the school district require a student to bring a personally
owned assistive device, such as an augmentative communication
system or laptop computer, to school in order to do schoolwork?

No. However, the family may wish the child to use his or her
equipment in school since the child may be more familiar or
comfortable with it. The IEP team should decide who is
responsible for repair and maintenance of family owned devices.

Is it sufficient for a school district to supply access to a
district-owned computer, but provide no software that is
appropriate for the student to use?

Just providing access to a computer does not fulfill the
district's obligation to provide assistive technology to support
FAPE. The educational aspect of the computer is very much
related to the software that the student uses. If no appropriate
software is available, then the student cannot pursue the IEP
goals.


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Appendix


Glossary

assistive technology: any sort of aid, including computers,
switches, calculators, spelling devices, communication devices
and voice synthesizers, which is used to help an individual
perform some task of daily living.

alternative keyboard: may include enlarged, reduced, varied key
placement, one-handed, braille, chordic, or any other device for
entering text on a computer.

augmentative communication: any device (electronic or otherwise)
to enhance communication for a person with limited speech.

braille embosser: a printer for producing braille output either
manually or when connected to a computer. When printing standard
text from a computer, it must first be translated into braille.

branching: describes the process of choosing among a sequence of
choices or actions to produce another sequence of choices. This
process is used in the "scanning" method of access.

CD-ROM: "Compact Disk Read-Only Memory" refers to the 4-inch
silver disks that typically hold 700 megabytes of digital
information and the players that access the information on these
disks.

cursor: either the flashing vertical or horizontal line on a
computer screen that indicates the insertion point for text; or
the arrow or I-beam that indicates the position of the mouse
pointer on the computer screen.

desk accessary: a small utility program that runs on a computer
and may be accessed from any program at any time (such as a
calculator).

drill and practice: presents questions repetetively, but is not
a tutorial. Software that is only drill and practise doesn't
necessarily teach the concepts needed to answer the questions
presented.

environmental control: any type of device that an individual may
use to control their environment (lights, appliances, TV,
telephone, etc). This may include anything from simple reachers
or sticks to computers and voice-activated electronic systems.

FM system: a local wireless broadcast system that consists of a
microphone and transmitter for the speaker and "walkman-like"
receivers with headphones for listeners with hearing
impairements or attention disorders.

high tech: use of electronics or computers as a solution.

icon: a small computer graphic that appears on the computer
screen and may represent different types of objects (files or
applications) or actions, depending on the context. Use the
mouse pointer to click on icons that open files or perform other
actions.

Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP): the written document
which defines the early intervention services provided to the
child and family. The program is designed to meet the needs of
the child and the family, and is based on family-identified
priorities.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): a written plan,
specifying instructional goals and any special education and
related services a student may need, which must be written and
reviewed annually. Included are (1) the present educational
levels of the student; (2) a statement of annual goals,
including short-term objectives; (3) a statement of specific
services, if needed; (4) the programs; (5) the date when special
services are to begin and the expected duration of these
services; and (6) the tests and other requirements or
information used to guage the student's progress to determine if
the instructional objectives are being met.

input: the information that is transmitted to a computer from a
keyboard, mouse or other input device.

keyboard: a device for inputing text and commands to a computer.

keyguard: a plexiglass or other cover for a keyboard with holes
for the individual keys. It allows more precise selection of
keys for an individual with fine motor difficulties.

keypad: a small keyboard with a 10-key setup for numeric input,
or it may also be used as a control for a screen-reader program.

laptop: a portable battery-powered computer that is typically
the size of a 3-ring binder, weighs 5-10 pounds, and consists of
a screen, keyboard and disk-drives.

laser discs: large (12-inch) CD-ROMs that normally contain
movies.

low tech: indicates use of low cost non-electronic solutions.

macro: a simple short program that performs an action on a
computer. They are usually created by recording the keyboard
and/or mouse input and storing them as an icon or key
combination.

megabyte: 1,000 X 210 bytes of information, which basically
means over one million keystrokes of computer storage (about 10
novels).

Morse Code: a direct method for computer input using one to
three switches and coded input to replace the keyboard and mouse.

mouse: the name given to the pointing device used to control
graphical user interfaces (GUI) of modern personal computers.

onscreen keyboard: a software program that places the keyboard
on the screen of the computer and may be accessed using a mouse
or other pointing device. This is ideal for individuals who
cannot use a regular keyboard, but can use some type of pointing
device.

optical character recognition (OCR): a process that utilizes
special computer software to convert the scanned image of text
into actual text that may be edited by a word processor.

output: computer-generated information for the user. This may be
printed output from a printer, visual information from the
screen, or sounds from speakers.

scanner: an electronic copier connected to a computer. Scanners
are used to input drawings, pictures or printed text into the
computer.

scanning: has nothing to do with the electronic copier above. It
is another method for accessing a computer or communication
device using one or more switches. Scanning involves presenting
a group of choices, cycling among them and making choices by
activating a switch.

screen reader: software that reads text on a computer screen
using a speech synthesizer. This allows individuals with visual
impairments or other print disabilities to access text on the
computer screen.

simulation: software that simulates real-world situations on a
computer. This may range from a joystick trainer for driving an
electric wheelchair to running cities.

speech synthesizer: hardware or software for producing
electronic human speech on a computer.

spell checker: utility for checking the spelling in a document.

sticky keys: software or mechanical utility for allowing typing
of multiple keystrokes with one finger (using the shift or other
modifier keys).

switch: a device that is like a single button of a keyboard or
mouse. Switches may be used by an individual with servere motor
difficulties by any controllable muscle in their body (head,
hand, toe, eye, breath, etc.) to operate any type of computer,
communication or environmental control device.

switch interface: black box that connects to a computer or other
device that has plugs for switches.

TDD: a text telephone used for communicating in typed text over
a phone line. A TDD has a keyboard and text display or small
printer. Both parties who are communicating over a phone line
must have TDDs.

touch window: a computer input device that uses a
touch-sensitive transparent window placed on the computer
screen. It performs mouse functions with a finger or stylus
directly on the screen.

trackball: another replacement for the mouse pointing device
that uses a rolling ball to perform mouse movements.

tutorial: teaches concepts, presents information as opposed to
simple drill and practice.

voice recognition: computer software and microphone that allows
input and control with voice commands.

word prediction: productivity software that increases typing
speed for one-finger typists and others by predicting and
choosing complete words.

word processor: software for inputing and formatting text.

user: person using a computer.

utility: software for adding function or performing housekeeping
tasks on a computer.


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Documents


SCHRAG LETTER ON ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

August 10, 1990

Dear Ms. Goodman:

This is in response to your recent letter to the Office of
Special Education Programs (OSEP) concerning the obligations of
public agencies under Part B of the Education of the Handicapped
Act (EHA-B) to provide assistive technology to children with
handicaps.

Specifically, your letter asks:

  * Can a school district presumptively deny assistive
    technology to a handicapped student?
  * Should the need for assistive technology be considered on an
    individual case-by-case basis in the development of the
    child's Individual Education Program?

In brief, it is impermissible under EHA-B for public agencies
(including school districts) "to presumptively deny assistive
technology" to a child with handicaps before a determination is
made as to whether such technology is an element of a free
appropriate public education (FAPE) for that child. Thus,
consideration of a child's need for assistive technology must
occur on a case-by-case basis in connection with development of
a child's individualized education program (IEP).

We note that your inquiry does not define the term "assistive
technology" and that the term is not used either in the EHA-B
statute or regulations. The technology Related Assistance for
Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988, P.L. 100-407,
contains broad definitions of both the terms "assistive
technology device" and "assistive technology service." See
Section 3 of P.L. 100-407, codified as 29 U.S.C. 2201, 2202. Our
response will use "assistive technology" to encompass "assistive
technology services" and "assistive technology devices."

Under EHA-B State and local educational agencies have
responsibility to ensure that eligible children with handicaps
receive FAPE, which includes the provision of special education
and related services without charge, in conformity with an IEP.
20 U.S.C. 1401(18); 34 CFR S.300.4(a) and (d). The term "special
education" is defined as "specially designed instruction, at no
cost to the parent , to meet the unique needs of a handicapped
child" 34 CFR S.300.14(a). Further, "related services" is
defined as including "transportation and such developmental,
corrective, and other supportive services as are required to
assist a handicapped child to benefit from special education."
34 CFR ss.330.13 (a).

The EHA-B regulation includes as examples 13 services that
qualify as "related services" under EHA-B. See 34 CFR S.300.13
(b)(1)-(13). We emphasize that this list "is not exhaustive and
may include other developmental, corrective, or other supportive
services...if they are required to assist a handicapped child to
benefit from special education." 34 CFR S.300.13 and Comment.
Thus, under EHA-B, "assistive technology" could qualify as
"special education" or "related services."

A determination of what is an appropriate educational program
for each child must be individualized and must be reflected in
the content of each child's IEP. Each child's IEP must be
developed at a meeting which includes parents and school
officials. 34 CFR S300.343-300.344. Thus, if the participants on
the IEP team determine that child with handicaps requires
assistive technology in order to receive FAPE, and designate
such assistive technology as either special education or a
related service, the child's IEP must include a specific
statement of such services, including the nature and amount of
such services. 34 CFR S.300.346(c); App. C to 34 CFR Part 3000
(Ques. 51).

EHA-B's least restrictive environment (LRE) provisions require
each agency to ensure "(t)hat special classes, separate
schooling or other removal of handicapped children from their
regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or
severity of the handicap is such that education in regular
classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot
be achieved satisfactorily." Part 121a, 42F.R. 42511.13 (August
23, 1977). Assistive technology can be a form of supplementary
aid or service utilized to facilitate a child's education in a
regular educational environment. Such supplementary aids and
services, or modifications to the regular education program,
must be included in a child's IEP. Id. Appendix C to 34 CF art
300 (Ques. 48).

In sum, a child's needs for assistive technology must be
determined on a case-by-case basis and could be special
education, related services or supplementary aids and services
for children with handicaps who are educated in regular classes.

I hope the above information has been helpful If we may provide
further assistance, please let me know.

Sincerely,

Judy A. Schrag, Ed.D., Director

Office of Special Education Programs


Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION LAW REPORT

                      Cite as 18 IDELR 627

                        Digest of Inquiry

                  (Inquirer's Name Not Provided)

                       (Date Not Provided)

  * Is a school district responsible to provide assistive
    technology devices for home use?
  * May a school board overrule a determination by an IEP team
    that a child with a disability needs access to an assistive
    technology device at home?
  * What is the time limit on implementation of an IEP?

                       Digest of Response

                       (November 27, 1991)

Assistive Technology Devices May Be Required for Home Use

If an IEP team determines that a child with a disability needs
access to an assistive technology device at home as a matter of
FAPE, then the school district must provide the device for home
use in order to implement the child's IEP.

School Board May Not Change IEP Team's Determination

Under Part B, a school board has no authority to unilaterally
change any statement of special education or related services
contained in an IEP, including a statement of a child's need to
have access to an assistive technology device at home. Without
reconvening the IEP team, the school board may not change the
IEP, and the school district is obligated to implement the IEP
requirements, regardless of the school board's objections.

IEPs Must Generally Be Implemented

Under Reg. 300.342(b), an IEP must be in effect before the
provision of special education or related services and must be
implemented as soon as possible following the conclusion of the
IEP meeting(s). In accordance with Appendix C to the Part 300
regulations, an IEP should generally be implemented without
delay after being finalized, although a reasonable delay may be
permissible in limited circumstances.

                       __________________

                         Text of Inquiry

I would like to have a copy of the policy classification on
Assistive Technology.

I also have a question to ask regarding Assistive Technology
such as a closed circuit TV.

My daughter uses a CCTV in school and it is on her IEP program.
My daughter is visually impaired. The initial request was made
by me, the parent, to the appropriate people involved in her
education, and discussed and approved by the committee on an
individual basis.

My question is: I would like to make the request to the
appropriate officials for another CCTV for home use to
accomplish the same results at home as is done in school. (For
homework, reading books, any assignments from school).

Another question is: If the committee approves this request, it
will go to School Board for approval. I would like to know what
happens if the School Board doesn't approve the proposal? Is it
impartial hearing time?

Thank you for your assistance in this matter.

Any information regarding Assistive Technology Informative for
school and home use would be greatly appreciated.

Is there a time limit on implementation of yearly updated
IEPs[?] Every year I have long delays on implementation of board
approved IEPs[.]

                        Text of Response

This is in response to your recent letter to the Office of
Special Education Programs (OSEP) requesting a copy of any OSEP
policy clarifications on assistive technology, as well as asking
specific questions concerning the assistive technology needs for
your daughter. You also asked a question about the time limits
for implementation of an individualized education program (IEP).

In response to your request, I am enclosing a copy of OSEP's
August 10, 1990 letter to Ms. Susan Goodman concerning the
obligations of public agencies under Part B of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (Part B), formerly cited as Part
B of the Education of the Handicapped Act, to provide assistive
technology to children with disabilities, along with some
additional information on assistive technology and a copy of the
Part B regulations. I would also like to provide you with OSEP's
response to each of your specific questions as stated below.

     I would like to make the request to the appropriate
     officials for another CCTV for home use to accomplish
     the same results as is done in school. (For homework,
     reading books, any assignment from school)

The IEP, which must be developed at a meeting that includes
parents and school officials, must contain, among other things,
a statement of the specific special education and related
services to be provided to the child. See 34 CFR (s)(s)
300.343-300.346. As stated in OSEP's letter to Ms. Goodman, if
the IEP team determines that a child with disabilities requires
assistive technology in order to receive a free appropriate
public education (FAPE), and designate such assistive technology
as either special education or a related service, the child's
IEP must include a specific statement of such services,
including the nature and amount of such services. See 34 CFR (s)
300.346(c); App. C to 34 CFR Part 300 (Ques. 51). The need for
assistive technology is determined on a case-by-case basis,
taking into consideration the unique need of each individual
child. If the IEP team determines that a particular assistive
technology item is required for home use in order for a
particular child to be provided FAPE, the technology must be
provided to implement the IEP.

     If the committee approves this request, it will go to
     the School Board for approval. I would like to know
     what happens if the School Board doesn't approve the
     proposal? Is it impartial hearing time?

As part of the public agency's part B obligation to provide FAPE
to an eligible child with disabilities, the public agency must
ensure that special education and related services are provided
in conformity with an IEP which meets the requirements of 34 CFR
(s)(s) 300.340-300.349. One requirement, at 34 CFR (s)
300.343(a), is that the public agency conduct a meeting to
develop, review and revise a child's IEP. The Regulations
require that certain participants attend the IEP meeting. See 34
CFR (s) 300.344. The role of the participants at the IEP meeting
is to determine the specific special education and related
services that a child needs in order to receive FAPE. Once the
determination is made at a meeting convened pursuant to 34 CFR
(s) 300.343(a), Part B does not recognize any authority on the
part of a local School Board to unilaterally change the
statement of special education and related services contained in
the IEP. After the IEP is developed and the placement decision
is made by a group of persons knowledgeable about the child, the
meaning of the evaluation data and placement options, the public
agency must implement the IEP. See 34 CFR (s) 300.533(a)(3).
Without reconvening the IEP meeting, the local school board
could not change the IEP.

     Is there a time limit on implementation of updated
     IEP's[?] Every year I have long delays on
     implementation of Board approved IEP's[.]

Part B imposes no specific time limits for the implementation of
IEPs. The Part B regulations at 34 CFR (s) 300.342(b) require
that an IEP: (1) must be in effect before special education and
related services are provided to a child; and (2) must be
implemented as soon as possible following the meetings required
to develop, review or revise a child's IEP. The answer to
Question 4 in Appendix C to the Part 300 regulations states that
no delay is permissible between the time a child's IEP is
finalized and when special education and related services is
provided. It is expected that the special education and related
services set out in the IEP will be provided by the agency
beginning immediately after the IEP is finalized. In certain
circumstances such as when the IEP meeting occurs during the
summer or a vacation period, or where there are circumstances
which require a short delay (e.g., working out transportation
arrangements) the implementation may not be immediate. See
Comment 34 CFR (s) 300.342.

I hope that this information is helpful to you. Please let us
know if you have any additional questions or concerns.

Judy A. Schrag, Director

Office of Special Education Programs

                    _______________________

                      Cite as 18 IDELR 628


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Sample Letter Requesting an Assistive Technology Evaluation

March 1997

Dear Sir:

Our daughter Catherine, an IDEA-eligible student, is currently
receiving special education and supportive therapies through the
public school district. As she is progressing through the
elementary school grades, the curriculum is demanding more and
more written work from her. At this point, teachers or
assistants are writing for her, but this method does not allow
Catherine the opportunity to compose written work on her own.

As Catherine's parents, we think the time has come to consider
assistive technology for Catherine to allow her to learn to do
written work on her own so that she can learn the mechanics of
writing and can put her own thoughts down on paper for others to
read.

To this end, we are requesting an assistive technology
evaluation for Catherine to determine what kinds of technology
are necessary to assist her with written expression. We are
assuming that the assistive technology evaluation will be
performed at district expense by professionals who are qualified
to determine: (a) what assistive technology may be necessary for
Catherine, (b) what assistive technology devices might be
helpful, and (c) what occupational and physical therapy services
may be necessary to support the technology.

We would like to have this evaluation completed so that
information is available prior to the convening of the IEP Team
to write Catherine's Individualized Education Program for next
year.

We appreciate your assistance with this matter and look forward
to hearing from you.

Yours truly,


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Assistive Technology...Issues to Address

_____What are the individual's current unmet needs for access to
communication, writing, or educational materials?

_____What are the short and long term educational goals?

_____What are the daily educational demands which require the
use of assistive technology?

_____Have the appropriate team members, including parents, been
involved in the assessment process?

_____What are the features of the technology that would assist
the individual in meeting daily classroom demands?

_____Why is the selected equipment more appropriate than other
alternatives?

_____Have all of the individual's environments been considered?

_____Does the selected equipment reflect the least restrictive
intervention strategy?

_____Is the equipment necessary to achieve educational/life
goals?

_____How will the individual physically manage the equipment in
all environments?

_____How will the equipment be integrated into the individual's
daily life?

_____How will the use of the assistive technology promote
inclusion of the individual into activities in the school and
community?

_____Which members of the education team will be trained to use
the equipment?

_____How will the individual be trained to use the equipment?

_____How will the family be involved with the individual and the
equipment?


Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

Examples


EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE EVALUATION

A. IDENTIFYING INFORMATION

Name of instructional program:

Publisher:

Cost: ____________Computer platform(PC/Mac):

Other equipment needed to run program:

Grade level of the program:

Skill levels required of users:

Special needs addressed by program:

B. DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION

1. What is the purpose of the instructional program, as stated
by its publisher?

2. What curriculum area or areas does it address?

3. What type of instructional program is it?

     tutorial drill and practice___ drill and practice ____
     problem solving___ teacher utility___ arcade game
     type___ simulation ___ educational game___ other___

4. For what type of learner was the program designed?

age level ______________ grade level ________________

ability level ____________ interest level _______________

5. What skills or information does the program attempt to teach
or review?

6. How does the program present information?

__text __graphics __animation __color __sound effects __music
__speech __other

7. Is the information presented clearly?

Is text legible and readable?

Are graphics comprehensible?

Are sounds audible and intelligible?

8. Are directions for using the program clearly stated and
understandable?

Where do directions appear?

_____ within the program

_____ in the program's documentation or manual

9. Is the program under user control; that is, can the user
control the program's movement from screen to screen?

Review directions at any time?

Exit the program at any time?

10. What computer use demands are placed on the learner?

_____ insert disk and turn on computer

_____ select from menu

other ______________________________

11. What academic demands are placed on the learner?

reading level _______________________________

spelling level _______________________________

other _____________________________________

12. What physical demands are placed on the learner?

_____ keyboard must be used to enter responses

_____ press any key

_____ press a key from one half or one quadrant of keyboard

_____ press on specific key

_____ press several keys in order

_____ other devices used to enter responses

13. What speed demands are placed on the learner?

_____ presentation of information controlled by program (
moderate, fast, or slow)

_____ presentation of information under user control

_____ unlimited response time

_____ response time set by program (moderate, fast, slow)

_____ response time varied by user

14. What accuracy demands are placed on the learner?

_____ user can correct typing errors

_____ program does not allow correction of typing errors

_____ program locates common errors

_____ program requires correct spelling of all responses

_____ program allows only one correct response for most questions

15. Is feedback about response accuracy provided to learners
appropriately?

_____ knowledge of results provided after each response?

_____ correct responses confirmed?

_____ learner informed if response incorrect

_____ another trial provided if response incorrect

_____ number of trials provided

_____ correct response demonstrated if learner fails to answer
correctly

_____ learner allowed opportunity to respond after demonstration
of correct response

16. Does the program use any branching procedures besides
differential treatment of correct and incorrect responses?

17. What techniques are used for reinforcement and motivation?

_____ knowledge of results and confirmation of correct responses

_____ summary information about learner performance

_____ text message of praise for correct responses

_____ graphics display and or sound for correct responses

_____ competitive game in which correct response earn points

_____ other ________________________________________________

Reinforcement is: _____ continuous _____ intermittent

18. What user options are available to students and teachers?

Students can select

_____ activity from menu difficulty

_____ number of questions type of questions

_____ other _______________________________________________

Teacher or parent can select

_____ sound on or off

_____ number of questions

_____ type of questions

_____ sequence of instruction

_____ number of trials

_____ speed of presentation

_____ speed demands for responses

_____ other_______________________________________________

Teacher or parent can

_____ enter own content into program

_____ review student records

_____ other_______________________________________________

19. Is the program's documentation adequate?

All program features fully and clearly explained.

Rationale for program, purpose and objectives included.

Print materials provided for students.

20. Other comments about the instructional program:

C. OVERALL EVALUATION

Rate the appropriateness of the instructional program in each of
the following areas, using this scale:

excellent=1 adequate=2 inadequate=3

1 2 3 Curricular content (program addresses important skills

1 2 3 Interest level

1 2 3 Ease of use for learners

1 2 3 Demands on learner (e.g., computer use, academic)

1 2 3 Instructional procedures

1 2 3 Motivational value

1 2 3 Appropriate use of the medium

1 2 3 Important instructional variables under teacher control

1 2 3 Other ____________________________________


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Software Features

Alternative Input

  * Easy-to-Read Screens
  * Consistency in Format
  * Intuitive Characteristics
  * Logical Labels
  * Instructional Choices
  * Graphics
  * Friendly Documentation
  * On-Screen Instructions
  * Auditory Cues
  * Visual Cues
  * Built-in Access Methods
  * Alternatives to a Mouse
  * Optional Cursors
  * Creation of Custom Programs

  * Switches and Switch Software
  * Alternative Keyboards
  * Keyboard Additions
  * Access Utilities
  * Interface Devices
  * Voice Recognition
  * Optical Character Recognition and Scanners
  * Electronic pointing Devices
  * Pointing and Typing Aids
  * Touch Screens
  * Joysticks
  * Trackballs
  * Arm and Wrist Supports

Processing Aids

Alternative Output

  * Abbreviation Expansion and Macro Programs
  * Word Prediction
  * Talking and Large Print Word Processors
  * Grammar and Spell Checkers
  * Reading Comprehension Programs
  * Writing Composition Programs
  * Electronic Reference Tools
  * Menu Management Program

  * Braille Embossers and Translators
  * Refreshable Braille Displays
  * Speech Synthesizers
  * Screen Readers
  * Screen Enlargement Programs
  * Monitor Additions

Specialized Products

  * Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
  * Environmental Control Units (ECU)
  * Notetakers
  * Reading Machines
  * Text Telephone (TDD)

Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION
Functional Analysis

Name: Chuck

Date:

Grade Level: Sixth

Overall Description: Chuck is a sixth grade student who receives
all of his instruction in the regular classroom. Chuck has right
hemiplegia. His right upper extremity is more affected than his
lower extremity. He has difficulty with total body movements
requiring bilateral coordination, especially with upper
extremities. Chuck has a leg length discrepancy with his right
leg being shorter than his left. He wars a lift in his shoe to
compensate for the difference. Chuck has low average
intelligence and normal speech. He reads at the third grade
level, and does math at grade level, except for story problems.
Chuck is very concrete in his thinking and has great difficulty
understanding figurative language. Chuck has a full time aide in
the regular classroom who modifies assignments and helps to keep
him on task. Socially, Chuck is polite and well-behaved, but
appears to be immature in his social relationships.

                              Need
                          Current Status
                            Next Step
                      Criteria for Success
                        Support Required
                            Locations

                        Cognitive Ability

Chuck is able to do grade level assignments, but he is very
literal in his interpretations, especially of abstract concepts.

Completion of grade level assignments with evidence of
understanding of main concepts

Limit requirements to a few concrete concepts in each academic
unit

Home School Community Work Recreation

                            Attending

Chuck is very easily distracted both visually and auditorily

Try having Chuck use earphones when he is word processing

Chuck will be on task 65-70% of time during independent work
periods.

Distraction free environment; study carrel; proximity to teacher
or aide

Home School Community Work Recreation

                            Perception

Chuck has a blind spot which makes it difficult for him to track
from line to line when he is reading. He also has trouble
distinguishing the figure from the background. Because of
perception problems, Chuck must have a large display screen on
his computer.

Chuck will complete modified assignments independently at least
85% of the time.

Enlarge worksheets and reading material. Highlight key
vocabulary words. Use a cardboard window to isolate individual
lines when reading. Enlarge on screen display when doing word
processing.

Home School Community Work Recreation

                            Fine Motor
                          Hand Writing
                           Note Taking

Chuck can use only one hand for fine motor tasks, including
typing. Chuck is an excellent one-handed typist both in terms of
speed and accuracy. Chuck can write in cursive, but handwriting
is very labor intensive and tiring for him. He produces much
better written products using a computer. Chuck cannot take
notes and listen at the same time.

Try giving Chuck notes before the classroom presentation. Have
him highlight keywords with a highlighting pen as he is
listening to the discussion.

Chuck will be able to produce written work at about the same
pace as other students in his class.

Laptop computer

Printer

Enlarged screen display

Co-Writer with Write-Out-Loud for word processing and word
prediction. Chuck needs to use word processing whenever written
assignments are required. Whenever possible his written
assignments should be shortened or he should be expected to
respond using multiple choice or one word answers.

Home School Community Work Recreation

                            Self Help

Chuck cannot tie his own shoes and he has difficulty zipping his
jacket with one hand.

Try having a peer buddy assist Chuck with his shoes and jacket.

Chuck will be able to receive help with a minimum of fuss or
embarrassment.

Teacher support of the peer buddy relationship.

Home School Community Work Recreation

Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

Resources


Parent Training and Information Centers

AL, AK, AS, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, DC, FL, GA, HI, ID, IL, IN,
IA, KS, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, MN, MS, MO, MT, NE, NV, NH, NJ,
NM, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, PR, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, UT, VT,
USVI, VA, WA, WV, WI, WY

Alabama

Alaska

     Special Education Action Committee Inc.
     600 Bel Air Blvd, #210
     Mobile, AL 36606-3501
     334-478-1208 Voice & TDD
     334-473-7877 FAX
     1-800-222-7322 AL only
     seacmob1@juno.com
     http://www.hsv.tis.net/~cja/
     P.A.R.E.N.T.S. Resource Center
     4753 Northern Lights Blvd.
     Anchorage, AK 99508
     907-337-7678 Voice & TDD
     907-337-7671 FAX
     1-800-478-7678 in AK
     parents@alaska.net
     http://www.alaska.net/~parents/

American Samoa

Arizona

     American Samoa PAVE
     P.O. Box 3432
     Pago Pago, AS 96799
     011-684-633-2407
     011-684-633-2408 FAX
     Pilot Parent Partnerships
     4750 N. Black Canyon Hwy, Suite 101
     Phoenix, AZ 85017-3621
     602-242-4366 Voice & TDD
     602-242-4306 FAX
     1-800-237-3007 in AZ

Arkansas

California

     Arkansas Disability Coalition
     2801 Lee Ave., Suite B
     Little Rock, AR 72205
     501-614-7020 Voice & TDD
     501-614-9082 FAX
     1-800-223-1330 AR only
     adc@cei.net

     FOCUS, Inc.
     305 West Jefferson Ave.
     Jonesboro, AR 72401
     870-935-2750 Voice
     870-931-3755 FAX
     focusinc@intellinet.com

     DREDF
     2212 Sixth Street
     Berkeley, CA 94710
     510-644-2555 (TDD available)
     510-841-8645 FAX
     1-800-466-4232
     dredf@dredf.org
     http://www.dredf.org

     Exceptional Parents Unlimited
     4120 N. First St.
     Fresno, CA 93726
     209-229-2000
     209-229-2956 FAX
     epu1@cybergate.com

     Family Network of CA
     594 Monterey Blvd.
     San Francisco, CA 94127-2416
     415-841-8820
     415-841-8824 FAX

     Matrix
     555 Northgate Drive, Suite A
     San Rafael, CA 94903
     415-499-3877 Voice; 415-499-3854 TDD
     415-507-9457 FAX
     1-800-578-2592
     matrix@marin.k12.ca.us
     http://marin.org/edu/matrix

     Parents Helping Parents
     3041 Olcott St.
     Santa Clara, CA 95054-3222
     408-727-5775 Voice / 408-727-7655 TDD
     408-727-0182 FAX
     info@php.com
     http://www.php.com

     Support for Families of Children with Disabilities
     2601 Mission #710
     San Francisco, CA 94110-3111
     415-282-7494
     415-282-1226 FAX
     sfcdmiss@aol.com

     TASK
     100 West Cerritos Ave.
     Anaheim, CA 92805
     714-533-8275
     714-533-2533 FAX
     taskca@aol.com

     TASK, San Diego
     3750 Convoy St., Suite 303
     San Diego, CA 92111-3741
     619-874-2386
     619-874-2375 FAX

Colorado

Connecticut

     PEAK Parent Center, Inc.
     6055 Lehman Drive, Suite 101
     Colorado Springs, CO 80918
     719-531-9400 voice / 719-531-9403 TDD
     719-531-9452 FAX
     1-800-284-0251
     PKPARENT@aol.com
     CPAC
     5 Church Lane, Suite 4
     P.O. Box 579
     East Lyme, CT 06333
     860-739-3089 Voice & TDD
     860-739-7460 FAX (Call first to dedicate line)
     1-800-445-2722 in CT
     cpacinc@aol.com
     http://members.aol.com/cpacinc/cpac.htm

Delaware

District of Columbia

     Parent Information Center (PIC)
     700 Barksdale Road, Suite 3
     Newark, DE 19711
     302-366-0152 voice / 302-366-0178 (TDD)
     302-366-0276 FAX
     PEP700@aol.com
     COPE
     300 I Street NE, Suite 112
     Washington, DC 20002
     202-543-6482
     202-543-6682 FAX
     1-800-515-COPE (National)
     cope@erols.com

Florida

Georgia

     Family Network on Disabilities
     2735 Whitney Road
     Clearwater, FL 33760-1610
     813-523-1130
     813-523-8687 FAX
     1-800-825-5736 FL only
     fnd@gate.net
     http://www.gate.net/~fnd
     Parents Educating Parents and Professionals for All
     Children (PEPPAC)
     8318 Durelee Lane Ste 101
     Douglasville, GA 30134
     770-577-7771
     770-577-7774 FAX
     PEPPAC@aol.com

Hawaii

Idaho

     AWARE
     200 N. Vineyard Blvd., Suite 310
     Honolulu, HI 96817
     808-536-9684 Voice / 808-536-2280 Voice & TTY
     808-537-6780 FAX
     Idaho Parents Unlimited, Inc.
     4696 Overland Road, Suite 478
     Boise, ID 83705
     208-342-5884 Voice & TDD
     208-342-1408 FAX
     1-800-242-4785
     ipul@rmci.net
     http://home.rmci.net/IPUL

Illinois

Indiana

     Designs for Change
     6 North Michigan Ave., Suite 1600
     Chicago, IL 60602
     312-857-9292 voice / 312-857-1013 TDD
     312-857-9299 FAX
     1-800-851-8728
     dfc1@aol.com

     Family Resource Center on Disabilities
     20 E. Jackson Blvd., Room 900
     Chicago, IL 60604
     312-939-3513 voice / 312-939-3519 TTY & TDY
     312-939-7297 FAX
     1-800-952-4199 IL only

     Family T.I.E.S. Network
     830 South Spring
     Springfield, IL 62704
     217-544-5809
     217-544-6018 FAX
     1-800-865-7842
     ftiesn@aol.com

     National Center for Latinos with Disabilities
     1921 South Blue Island Ave.
     Chicago, IL 60608
     312-666-3393 voice/ 312-666-1788 TTY
     312-666-1787 FAX
     1-800-532-3393
     ncld@interaccess.com

     IN*SOURCE
     809 N. Michigan St.
     South Bend, IN 46601-1036
     219-234-7101
     219-234-7279 FAX
     1-800-332-4433 in IN
     insour@speced.doe.state.in.us
     http://home1.gte.net/insource

Iowa

Kansas

     SEEK Parent Center
     4405 98th Street
     Urbandale, IA 50322
     515-276-8470
     Families Together, Inc.
     3340 W Douglas, Ste 102
     Wichita, KS 67203
     316-945-7747
     316-945-7795 FAX
     1-888-815-6364
     fmin@feist.com
     http://www.kansas.net/~family

Kentucky

Louisiana

     Family Training & Information Center
     2210 Goldsmith Lane, Suite 118
     Louisville, KY 40218
     502-456-0923
     502-456-0893 FAX
     1-800-525-7746
     apininc@aol.com
     Project PROMPT
     4323 Division Street, Suite 110
     Metairie, LA 70002-3179
     504-888-9111
     504-888-0246 FAX
     1-800-766-7736
     fhfgno@ix.netcom.com

Maine

Maryland

     Special Needs Parents Info Network
     P.O. Box 2067
     Augusta, ME 04338-2067
     207-582-2504
     207-582-3638 FAX
     1-800-870-SPIN in ME
     info@mpf.org
     http://www.mpf.org
     Parents Place of Maryland, Inc.
     7257 Parkway Drive, Suite 210
     Hanover, MD 21076-1306
     410-712-0900 Voice & TDD
     410-712-0902 FAX
     parplace@aol.com
     http://www.somerset.net/ParentsPlace

Massachusetts

Michigan

     Federation for Children with Special Needs
     95 Berkeley St., Suite 104
     Boston, MA 02116
     617-482-2915 (Voice and TTY)
     617-695-2939 FAX
     1-800-331-0688 in MA
     fcsninfo@fcsn.org
     http://www.fcsn.org/
     CAUSE
     3303 W. Saginaw, Suite F-1
     Lansing, MI 48917-2303
     517-886-9167 Voice & TDD & TDY
     517-886-9775 FAX
     1-800-221-9105 in MI
     info-cause@voyager.net

     Parents are Experts
     23077 Greenfield Road, Suite 205
     Southfield, MI 48075-3744
     248-557-5070 Voice & TDD
     248-557-4456 FAX
     ucpdetroit@aol.com

Minnesota

Mississippi

     PACER Center, Inc.
     4826 Chicago Avenue South
     Minneapolis, MN 55417-1098
     612-827-2966 (Voice); 612-827-7770 (TTY)
     612-827-3065 FAX
     1-800-537-2237 in MN
     pacer@pacer.org
     http://www.pacer.org
     Parent Partners
     3111 North State St.
     Jackson, MS 39216
     601-366-5707
     601-362-7361 FAX
     1-800-366-5707 in MS
     ptiofms@misnet.com

     Project Empower
     1427 S. Main, Suite 8
     Greenville, MS 38701
     601-332-4852
     601-332-1622 FAX
     1-800-337-4852

Missouri

Montana

     Missouri Parents Act
     208 East High Street, Room I
     Jefferson City, MO 65101
     573-635-1189
     573-635-7802 FAX

     Parent Education & Advocacy Resource
     MPACT
     3100 Main, Suite 303
     Kansas City, MO 64111
     816-531-7070
     816-531-4777 FAX
     mpactcs@coop.crn.org

     Parents Let's Unite for Kids (PLUK
     516 N 32nd St
     Billings, MT 59101
     406-255-0540
     406-255-0523 FAX
     1-800-222-7585 in MT
     plukmt@wtp.net
     http://www.pluk.org

Nebraska

Nevada

     Nebraska Parents Center
     1941 South 42nd St., #122
     Omaha, NE 68105-2942
     402-346-0525 Voice & TDD
     402-346-5253 FAX
     1-800-284-8520
     npc@uswest.ne.net
     http://techlab.esu3.k12.ne.us/npc/ParentsCenter.html
     Nevada Parents Encouraging Parents (PEP)
     601 S. Rancho Dr., Suite C25
     Las Vegas, NV 89106
     702-388-8899
     702-388-2966 FAX
     1-800-216-5188
     nvpep@vegas.infi.net

New Hampshire

New Jersey

     Parent Information Center
     P.O. Box 2405
     Concord, NH 03302-2405
     603-224-7005 (Voice & TDD)
     603-224-4365 FAX
     1-800-232-0986 in NH
     picnh@aol.com
     Statewide Parent Advocacy Network (SPAN)
     35 Halsey Street, 4th Floor
     Newark, NJ 07102
     973-642-8100
     973-642-8080 FAX
     1-800-654-SPAN
     autind@aol.com
     http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7235

New Mexico

New York

     EPICS Project
     P.O. Box 788
     Bernalillo, NM 87004
     505-67-3396
     505-867-3398 FAX
     1-800-765-7320 V/TDD
     epics@highfiver.com

     Parents Reaching Out, Project ADOBE
     1000-A Main St. NW
     Los Lunas, NM 87031
     505-865-3700 Voice & TDD
     505-865-3737 FAX
     1-800-524-5176 in NM

     Advocates for Children of NY
     105 Court Street, Ste. 402
     Brooklyn, NY 11201
     718-624-8450
     718-624-1260 FAX
     advocat1@idt.com

     Parent Network Center
     250 Delaware Avenue, Suite 3
     Buffalo, NY 14202
     716-853-1570 voice / 716-853-1573 TTD
     716-853-1574 FAX
     1-800-724-7408 in NY

     Resources for Children with Special Needs
     200 Park Ave. S., Suite 816
     New York, NY 10003
     212-677-4650
     212-254-4070 FAX
     resourcesnyc@prodigy.net
     http://www.epsty.com/resourcesnyc

     Sinergia/Metropolitan Parent Center
     15 West 65th St., 6th Floor
     New York, NY 10023
     212-496-1300
     212-496-5608 FAX
     Sinergia@panix.com
     http://www.panix.com/~sinergia

North Carolina

North Dakota

     ECAC, Inc.
     P.O. Box 16
     Davidson, NC 28036
     704-892-1321
     704-892-5028 FAX (Call first to dedicate line)
     1-800-962-6817 NC only
     ECAC1@aol.com
     Native American Family Network System
     Arrowhead Shopping Center
     1600 2nd Avenue SW
     Minot, ND 58701
     701-852-9426 voice / 701-852-9436 TTY
     701-838-9324 FAX
     1-800-245-5840 in ND
     ndpath01@minot.ndak.net
     http://www.ndcd.org/pathfinder

     Pathfinder Family Center
     Arrowhead Shopping Center
     1600 2nd Ave. SW
     Minot, ND 58701
     701-852-9426 voice / 701-852-9436 TTY
     (701) 838-9324 FAX
     ndpath01@minot.ndak.net
     http://www.ndcd.org/pathfinder

Ohio

Oklahoma

     Child Advocacy Center
     1821 Summit Road, Suite 303
     Cincinnati, OH 45237
     513-821-2400
     513-821-2442 FAX
     CADCenter@aol.com

     OCECD
     Bank One Building
     165 West Center St., Suite 302
     Marion, OH 43302-3741
     614-382-5452 Voice & TDD
     614-383-6421 FAX
     1-800-374-2806
     ocecd@edu.gte.net

     Parents Reaching Out in OK
     1917 S. Harvard Avenue
     Oklahoma City, OK 73128
     405-681-9710
     405-685-4006 FAX
     1-800-PL94-142
     prook1@aol.com
     http://www.ucp.org/probase.htm

Oregon

Pennsylvania

     Oregon COPE Project
     999 Locust St. NE
     Salem, OR 97303
     503-581-8156 Voice & TDD
     503-391-0429 FAX
     1-888-505-COPE
     orcope@open.org
     Parent Education Network
     333 East Seventh Avenue
     York, PA 17404
     717-845-9722 Voice & TTY
     717-848-3654 FAX
     1-800-522-5827 in PA
     1-800-441-5028 (Spanish in PA)
     pen@parentednet.org
     http://www.homepagecreations.com/pen/

     Parents Union for Public Schools
     311 S. Juniper St., Suite 200
     Philadelphia, PA 19107
     215-546-1166
     215-731-1688 FAX
     ParentsU@aol.com

Puerto Rico

Rhode Island

     Parents Training Parents by APNI
     P.O. Box 21301
     San Juan, PR 00928-1301
     787-250-4552
     787-767-8492 FAX
     1-800-981-8492
     1-800-949-4232
     APNIPR@PRTC.net
     RI Parent Information Network
     500 Prospect Street
     Pawtucket, RI 02860
     401-727-4144 voice / 401-727-4151 TDD
     401-727-4040 FAX
     1-800-464-3399 in RI

South Carolina

South Dakota

     PRO-PARENTS
     2712 Middleburg Drive, Suite 203
     Columbia, SC 29204
     803-779-3859 Voice & TDD
     803-252-4513 FAX
     1-800-759-4776 in SC
     pro-parents@aol.com
     South Dakota Parent Connection
     3701 West 49th St., Suite 200B
     Sioux Falls, SD 57106
     605-361-3171 Voice & TDD
     605-361-2928 FAX
     1-800-640-4553 in SD
     jdiehl@sdparentconnection.com
     http://dakota.net/sdpc

Tennessee

Texas

     STEP
     424 E. Bernard Ave., Suite 3
     Greeneville, TN 37745
     423-639-0125 voice / 636-8217 TDD
     423-636-8217 FAX
     1-800-280-STEP in TN
     tnstep@aol.com
     http://www.tnstep.org
     Grassroots Consortium
     6202 Belmark
     P.O. Box 61628
     Houston, TX 77208-1628
     713-643-9576
     713-643-6291 FAX
     SpecKids@aol.com

     Partners Resource Network Inc.
     1090 Longfellow Drive, Suite B
     Beaumont, TX 77706-4819
     409-898-4684 Voice & TDD
     409-898-4869 FAX
     1-800-866-4726 in TX
     TXPRN@juno.com
     http://www.salsa.net/~path

     Project PODER
     1017 N. Main Ave., Suite 207
     San Antonio, TX 78212
     210-222-2637
     210-222-2638 FAX
     1-800-682-9747 TX only
     poder@world-net.com

Utah

Vermont

     Utah Parent Center
     2290 East 4500 S., Suite 110
     Salt Lake City, UT 84117
     801-272-1051
     801-272-8907 FAX
     1-800-468-1160 in UT
     upc@inconnect.com
     Vermont Parent Information Center
     1 Mill Street, Suite A7
     Burlington, VT 05401
     802-658-5315 Voice & TDD
     802-658-5395 FAX
     1-800-639-7170 in VT
     vpic@together.net
     http://www.together.net/~vpic

Virgin Islands

Virginia

     V.I. FIND
     #2 Nye Gade
     St. Thomas, US VI 00802
     340-775-3962; 340-774-1662
     340-775-3962 FAX
     vifind@islands.vi
     Parent Educational Advocacy Training Center
     10340 Democracy Lane, Suite 206
     Fairfax, VA 22030-2518
     703-691-7826
     703-691-8148 FAX
     1-800-869-6782 VA only
     peatcinc@aol.com
     http://members.aol.com/peatcinc/index.htm

Washington

West Virginia

     PAVE/STOMP
     6316 South 12th St.
     Tacoma, WA 98465
     253-565-2266 Voice & TTY
     253-566-8052 FAX
     1-800-572-7368
     wapave9-2@idt.net
     http://idt.net/~wapave9

     Washington PAVE
     6316 South 12th
     Tacoma, WA 98465-1900
     253-565-2266 (Voice & TDD)
     253-566-8052 FAX
     1-800-572-7368 in WA
     wapave9@idt.net
     http://idt.net/~wapave9

     West Virginia PTI
     371 Broaddus Ave
     Clarksburg, WV 26301
     304-624-1436 Voice & TTY
     304-624-1438
     1-800-281-1436 in WV
     wvpti@aol.com

Wisconsin

Wyoming

     Parent Education Project of Wisconsin
     2192 South 60th Street
     West Allis, WI 53219-1568
     414-328-5520 Voice / 414-328-5525 TDD
     414-328-5530
     1-800-231-8382 (WI only)
     PMColletti@aol.com
     http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/~rowley/pep/home.htmlx
     Parent Information Center
     5 North Lobban
     Buffalo, WY 82834
     307-684-2277 Voice & TDD
     307-684-5314
     1-800-660-9742 WY only
     tdawsonpic@vcn.com


Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

ALLIANCE FOR TECHNOLOGY ACCESS RESOURCE CENTERS

     National Office:
     2175 East Francisco Blvd., Suite L
     San Rafael, CA 94901
     (415) 455-4575
     (415) 455-0491 (TTY)
     atainfo@ataccess.org
     http://www.ataccess.org
| Alabama | Alaska | Arizona | Arkansas | California | Florida |
    Georgia | Hawaii | Idaho | Illinois | Indiana | Kansas |
 Kentucky | Maryland | Michigan | Minnesota | Missouri | Montana
| New Jersey | New York | North Carolina | Ohio | Rhode Island |
  Tennessee | Utah | Virgin Islands | Virginia | West Virginia |

ALABAMA

     Birmingham Alliance for Technology Access Center
     Birmingham Independent Living Center
     206 13th Street South
     Birmingham, AL 35233-1317
     205/251-2223 (Voice/TTY)
     dankess@ix.netcom.com

     Technology Assistance for Special Consumers
     P.O. Box 443
     Huntsville, AL 35804
     205/532-5996 (Voice/TTY)
     tasc@traveller.com
     http://tasc.ataccess.org

ALASKA

     Alaska Services for Enabling Technology
     P.O. Box 6485
     Sitka, AK 99835
     907/747-7615
     asetseak@aol.com

ARIZONA

     Technology Access Center of Tucson
     P.O. Box 13178
     4710 East 29th Street
     Tucson, AZ 85732-3178
     520/745-5588, ext. 412
     tactaz@aol.com

ARKANSAS

     Technology Resource Center
     c/o Arkansas Easter Seal Society
     3920 Woodland Heights Road
     Little Rock, AR 72212-2495
     501/227-3600
     atrce@aol.com

CALIFORNIA

     Center for Accessible Technology
     2547 8th St., 12-A
     Berkeley, CA 94710-2572
     510/841-3224 (Voice/TTY)
     cforat@aol.com
     http://www.el.net/CAT

     Computer Access Center
     P. O. Box 5336
     Santa Monica, CA 90409
     310/338-1597
     cac@cac.org
     http://www.cac.org

     iTECH - Parents Helping Parents
     3041 Olcott Street
     Santa Clara, CA 95054-3222
     408-727-5775
     iTech@php.com
     http://www.php.com

     Sacramento Center for Assistive Technology
     701 Howe Avenue, Suite E-5
     Sacramento, CA 95825
     916/927-7228
     scat@quiknet.com
     http://www.quiknet.com/~scat

     SACC * Assistive Technology Center
     Simi Valley Hospital, North Campus
     P. O. Box 1325
     Simi Valley, CA 93062
     805/582-1881
     dssaccca@aol.com

     Team of Advocates for Special Kids
     100 W. Cerritos Ave.
     Anaheim, CA 92805-6546
     714/533-8275
     taskca@aol.com

FLORIDA

     CITE, Inc. - Center for Independence,Technology &
     Education
     215 E. New Hampshire St.
     Orlando, FL 32804
     407/898-2483
     comcite@aol.com

GEORGIA

     Tech-Able, Inc.
     1112-A Brett Drive
     Conyers, GA 30207
     (770) 922-6768
     techable@america.net

HAWAII

     Aloha Special Technology Access Center
     710 Green St.
     Honolulu, HI 96813
     808/523-5547
     stachi@aol.com
     http://www.aloha.net/~stachi

IDAHO

     United Cerebral Palsy of Idaho, Inc.
     5530 West Emerald
     Boise, ID 83706
     (208) 377-8070
     ucpidaho@aol.com

ILLINOIS

     Northern Illinois Center for Adaptive Technology
     3615 Louisiana Road
     Rockford, IL 61108-6195
     815/229-2163
     ilcat@aol.com

     Technical Aids & Assistance for the Disabled Center
     1950 West Roosevelt Road
     Chicago, IL 60608
     312/421-3373(Voice/TTY)
     800/346-2939
     taad@interaccess.com
     http://homepage.interaccess.com/~taad

INDIANA

     Assistive Technology Training and Information Center
     Attic: A Resource Center on Independent Living
     P.O. Box 2441
     Vincennes, IN 47591
     812-886-0575 (Voice/TTY)
     inattic1@aol.com

KANSAS

     Technology Resource Solutions for People
     1710 West Schilling Road
     Salina, KS 67401
     913/827-9383
     trspks@aol.com

KENTUCKY

     Bluegrass Technology Center
     169 N. Limestone Street
     Lexington, KY 40507
     606/255-9951
     bluegrass@uky.campus.mci.net
     http://www.kde.state.ky.us/assistive/
     Assistive_Technology.html

     Enabling Technologies of Kentuckiana
     Louisville Free Public Library
     301 York Street
     Louisville, KY 40203-2257
     (502) 574-1637
     (800) 890-1840 (KY)
     entech@iglou.com
     http://www.kde.state.ky.us/assistive/
     Assistive_Technology.html

     AbleTech Assistive Technology Resource Center
     36 W. 5th Street
     Covington, KY 41011
     (606) 491-8700
     abletech@unidial.com
     http://www.kde.state.ky.us/assistive/
     Assistive_Technology.html

     Western Kentucky Assistive Technology Consortium
     PO Box 266
     Murray, KY 42071
     (502) 759-4233
     wkatc@mursuky.campus.mci.net
     http://www.kde.state.ky.us/assistive/
     Assistive_Technology.html

MARYLAND

     Learning Independence Through Computers, Inc. (LINC)
     1001 Eastern Avenue, 3rd floor
     Baltimore, MD 21202
     410-659-5462 (Voice)
     410/659-5472 (Fax/TTY)
     lincmd@aol.com
     http://www.linc.org

MICHIGAN

     Living & Learning Resource Centre
     PIAM
     1023 S. US 27
     St. Johns, MI 48879-2424
     (517) 224-0333
     800/833-1996(MI)
     llrcmi1@aol.com

MINNESOTA

     PACER Computer Resource Center
     4826 Chicago Avenue South
     Minneapolis, MN 55417-1055
     612/827-2966 (Voice/TTY)
     pacercrc@aol.com
     http://www.pacer.org/crc/crc.htm

MISSOURI

     Technology Access Center
     12110 Clayton Road
     St Louis, MO 63131-2599
     314/569-8404 (Voice)
     314/569-8446 (TTY)
     mostltac@aol.com

MONTANA

     Parents, Let's Unite for Kids
     516 N 32nd St
     Billings, MT 59101
     406/255-0540
     800/222-7585 (MT)
     plukmt@wtp.net
     http://www.pluk.org

NEW JERSEY

     Computer Center for People With disAbilities
     c/o Family Resource Associates, Inc.
     35 Haddon Avenue
     Shrewsbury, NJ 07702-4007
     908/747-5310
     ccdanj@aol.com

     Center for Enabling Technology
     622 Route 10 West, Suite 22B
     Whippany, NJ 07981
     201/428-1455 (Voice)
     201/428-1450 (TTY)
     cetnj@aol.com

NEW YORK

     Techspress Resource Center for Independent Living
     P.O. Box 210
     401-409 Columbia Street
     Utica, NY 13503-0210
     315/797-4642
     lana.gossin@rcil.com

NORTH CAROLINA

     Carolina Computer Access Center
     Metro School
     700 East Second Street
     Charlotte, NC 28202-2826
     704/342-3004
     ccacnc@aol.com
     http://www.charweb.org/health/ccac.html

OHIO

     Technology Resource Center
     301 Valley St.
     Dayton, OH 45404-1840
     513/222-5222
     trcdoh@aol.com

RHODE ISLAND

     TechACCESS Center of Rhode Island
     300 Richmond St.
     Providence, RI 02903-4222
     401/273-1990
     800/916-TECH (RI)

TENNESSEE

     East Tennessee Technology Access Center, Inc.
     3525 Emory Road, NW
     Powell, TN 37849
     423/947-2191 (Voice/TTY)
     etstactn@aol.com
     http://www.korrnet.org/ettac/

     Technology Access Center of Middle Tennessee
     Fountain Square, Suite 126
     2222 Metrocenter Blvd.
     Nashville, TN 37228
     615/248-6733 (Voice/TTY)
     800/368-4651
     tactn@aol.com

     West Tennessee Special Technology Access Resource
     Center (STAR)
     P.O. Box 3683
     60 Lynoak Cove Jackson, TN 38305
     901/668-3888
     800/464-5619
     mdoumitt@starcenter.tn.org
     http://www.starcenter.tn.org

UTAH

     The Computer Center for Citizens with Disabilities
     c/o Utah Center for Assistive Technology
     2056 South 1100 East
     Salt Lake City, UT 84106
     801/485-9152 (Voice/TTY)
     cboogaar@usoe.k12.ut.us

VIRGIN ISLANDS

     Virgin Islands Resource Center for the Disabled, Inc.
     P.O. Box 1825
     St. Thomas, VI 00803
     809/777-2253

VIRGINIA

     Tidewater Center for Technology Access
     Special Education Annex
     960 Windsor Oaks Blvd. Blvd.
     Virginia Beach, VA 23462
     (757) 474-8650
     tcta@aol.com
     http://tcta.ataccess.org

WEST VIRGINIA

     Eastern Panhandle Technology Access Center, Inc.
     P.O. Box 987
     300 S. Lawrence St.
     Charles Town, WV 25414
     304/725-6473
     eptac@earthlink.net


Return to beginning ___ Next Article ___ Previous Article

State Tech Act Projects

     RESNA
     1700 North Moore Street, Suite 1540
     Arlington, VA 22209-1903
     Phone: 703-524-6686
     Fax: 703-524-6630
     TTY: 703-524-6639
     http://www.resna.org/


Copyright (c) 1998 Parents, Let's Unite for Kids, all rights
reserved. plukmt@wtp.net

----------
End of Document