
		   ***  BIG CHEM REVIEW NOTES  ***


ACCURACY  comparison to an accepted standard.

PRECISION  gives consistent results.  (Something can be precisely  
		inaccurate.)

SIGNIFICANT DIGITS  those that can be accurately measured.  An 
		answer can have no more significant digits than the least 
		number of them in the data.

DENSITY is equal to mass/volume.

HETEROGENEOUS materials are not uniform throughout.  

HOMOGENEOUS materials are the same throughout. All solutions are 
		homogeneous.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES are such things color, density, hardness,   
		ductility, malleability, solubility, heat conduction,   
		electrical properties, melting and boiling point.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES are such things as reactivity, oxidation 
		  states, flammability, and corrosiveness.

CHEMICAL SYMBOLS are abbreviations for the elements.

CHEMICAL FORMULAS show which elements are present and their 
		ratios.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS show what reacts with what, what new         
		substances are formed, and their reacting ratios.
		*** PRACTICE balancing all types of equations & REDOX!

OXIDATION NUMBERS or VALENCES are the number or electrons 
		lost, gained or shared in a chemical reaction.  Free 
		elements have zero as an oxidation number.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA is the simplest whole number ratio of elements 
		in a compound, ie CH2.

MOLECULAR FORMULA shows the actual number of atoms in   
		compound. Ex. C2H4.

THE MOLE is the number of atoms in the atomic mass of an element 
		or the number of molecules in the molecular mass of a 
		compound. It = 6.02 X 10 to the 23 atoms or molecules.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION can be found by totaling the atomic 
		masses of the atoms in the formula, dividing each mass 
		by the total, and changing the results to %-age.

WRITING and BALANCING equations should be reviewed in your Big 
		Chem notebook.  Try them with the solutions covered, 
		then check your results.

PROBLEM SOLVING can best be reviewed by working the examples in 
		your chemistry notebook. Try them first without peeking 
		at the solutions. Then spend your time on those that you 
		failed to solve.

ACTIVATION ENERGY is the minimum energy required to start a 
		chemical reaction.

EXOTHERMIC REACTION gives out more energy than was put in to 
		start the reaction.  It has a negative DH. It keeps     
		going after it is started.  An example is a fire.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION takes more energy to start it than it gives 
		back.  It has a positive DH.  It needs energy to keep 
		it going.  An example is cooking.  (Chippers a baking!)

ENTHALPY is the heat of reaction, either exo- or endothermic.  It is 
		measured either in kilocalories/mole or kilojoules/mole.

DALTON'S LAW of DEFINITE PROPORTIONS states that every  
		compound has a definite composition by weight. Ah, the 
		formulas.

THE LAW of CONSERVATION of MATTER states that matter cannot 
		  be created nor destroyed, but only changed in form. 
		  For example matter and mass can be interchanged.

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION of ENERGY states that energy cannot 
		  be destroyed nor created, but only changed in form.  Ex. 
		heat --> electricity --> light, etc.

THE LAW of MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS shows that some compounds                    
		have formulas that are whole number multiples of atoms 
		    Ex. NO2, N2O4; H2O, H2O2; FeO, Fe2O3.

AN ELEMENT is the simplest form of matter.

A COMPOUND is two or more elements chemically combined.

AN ATOM is the smallest particle of a chemical element.

A MOLECULE is the smallest particle of a chemical compound. It 
		contains two or more atoms.

ATOMIC NUMBER is the number of protons in the nucleus of an 
		atom.  It is the whole number on the periodic chart. It is 
		also the number of electrons in a neutral atom (where 
		protons = electrons).

ION is a charged atom or group of atoms.  Ionization is caused by a 
		gain or loss of electrons. A loss leaves a positive charge, 
		a gain leaves a negative charge.

MASS NUMBER is the relative mass of the isotopes compared to that 
		of Carbon-12 whose mass is 12.0000 g/mol. It is not 
		shown on the periodic chart.
		It is also equal to the sum of protons + neutrons       
		inasmuch as protons and neutrons each have an atomic 
		mass of 1 g/mol  (amu - atomic mass unit).

ISOTOPES are the same elements with different mass numbers.  This 
		is caused by having a different number of neutrons in 
		the nucleus.

ATOMIC MASS is the average mass of the isotopes of an element.  It 
		is the decimal number on the periodic chart. It depends 
		upon both the isotopes' masses and the amount of each 
		isotope present.

MOLECULAR MASS is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms 
		in a molecule.

PROTON is a basic particle with a charge of +1 and a mass of 1g/mol 
		(amu).

ELECTRON is a basic particle whose charge is -1 and whose mass is 
		1/1837 g/mol (amu).

NEUTRON is a basic particle whose charge is 0 and whose mass is 1 
		g/mol (amu).

NUCLEON refers to the particles in the nucleus--  Protons and   
		Neutrons.

BETA PARTICLES are electrons produced in nuclear reactions. They 
		are Electrons.

ALPHA PARTICLES are helium nuclei (no electrons) produced in 
		nuclear reactions.  They are helium ions,  He+2.

GAMMA RAYS are electromagnetic radiations beyond the X-rays in 
		frequency. They are usually produced in nuclear         
		reactions.

POSITRONS are electrons with a +1 charge.  They are found in    
		cosmic rays and in nuclear reactions.  They are         
		antimatter.  When they meet an electron there is        
		complete annihilation to give pure energy in the form of 
		gamma rays. This is total matter and energy conversion 
		by E = mc2.

SIR JJ THOMPSON'S "J" tube determined the charge to mass ratio of 
		electrons and ions. This led to the discovery of isotopes.

THE CANAL RAY TUBE showed that ions are produced by electron 
		bombardment. The simplest positive ion, H+1, is the 
		PROTON.

THE MILLIKAN OIL DROP EXPERIMENT measured the actual charge 
		  on an electron.

THE MASS OF AN ELECTRON and ions were determined by using the 
		charge/mass ratio and the actual charge (Millikan).  The 
		electron's mass is 10-31kg.

THE MASS SPECTROMETER is a refined Sir JJ Tube in which the     
		masses of particles, ions, and isotopes are measured. It 
		separates isotopes according to charge and mass.

X-RAYS are electromagnetic radiations above the Ultra Violet in 
		frequency that are produced when electrons strike a 
		metal target. They are used to determine the atomic 
		number of elements and the structure of crystals.

THE SIZE OF THE ATOM can be measured by oil slick experiments or 
		by calculating how many atoms lie along the side of a 
		cube of a known number of moles of atoms.

THE SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS was measured by Lord Rutherford using 
		the scattering patterns of alpha particles passing through 
		gold foil.  It is 10-15 meter.

THE RATIO OF THE ATOMIC DIAMETER TO THE NUCLEAR DIAMETER
		   is 10to the 5th.  The volume ratio is 10to the 15th.   It 
		   would require 10to the 15th  nuclei to fill an atom! --                
		 "The flea in Yankee Stadium".

SPECTROSCOPY is the analysis of the lines of light emitted from 
		excited atoms as the electrons drop back through their 
		orbitals.  These lines give the energy and distances of the 
		electronic orbitals.

ORBITALS are the probability distributions of where electrons may 
		be found in their atoms, s -orbitals are spherical, p -
		orbitals are dumbbell shaped.

THERMIONIC EMISSION is the boiling off of electrons from heated 
		metals.  It gives a source of electrons for cathode ray 
		tubes.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION is the principle that electromagnetic 
		radiations like light travel in straight lines.

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is the emission of electrons from metal 
		when the metal is struck by light.

LIGHT has both wave and particle properties.  

ELECTRONS have both wave and particle properties.

De BROGLIE'S HYPOTHESIS states that electrons around atoms are in 
		wave formation.

SCHROEDINGER'S WAVE EQUATION explains the shapes of the         
		orbitals of the electrons around an atom. They are 
		probability distributions.  That is, there is a probability 
		of finding an electron's position in a "cloud" around an 
		atomic nucleus. The electron appears to be "spread out" 
		as it orbits, filling its cloud.

QUANTUM NUMBERS describe the distance, shape, and orientation 
		of the electronic orbitals.

THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER, n, gives the energy of the        
		orbital.  This is determined by the distance of the     
		electron from the nucleus.

THE SECOND QUANTUM NUMBER, l, describes sublevels.  The         
		sublevels are called, s, p, d, f.
			s orbitals are spherical in shape.
			p orbitals are dumbbell shaped.
			for other orbitals, see diagrams pp 162-164. 

THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE states that no two electrons may 
		have the same quantum numbers.  Only two electrons 
		may occupy an orbital, but they must have opposite 
		spins.

THE PERIODIC TABLE (first worked out by Mendeleev in 1869) is 
		organized by the regularly repeating pattern of chemical 
		properties of the elements. Each column is a family of 
		elements having similar properties.  The properties are a 
		periodic function of the atomic numbers.  Atomic        
		number is symbolized "Z". The table is based on the 
		electron configuration of the atoms.

	The first column is the Alkali metals, they react vigorously 
		with water to give hydrogen gas. They are lithium,      
		sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. 
		Francium is a man-made radioactive element.

	The second column is the Alkaline Earth elements.  They are 
		active, but much less so than the previous column.

	The transition metals have electrons filling d sublevels.  They, 
		used alone or as alloys, are our principal structural 
		metals.

	An alloy is a mixture of metals, a solid solution.

	The seventh column is the Halogens (salt formers).  These are 
		the deadly fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and 
		astatine. Astatine is a man-made radioactive element.

	The eighth column is the noble gases. These loafers are         
		most inactive. Only extreme measures can make them 
		react. They are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and 
		radon.

	The Lanthanides and Actinides are the two rows at the bottom 
		of the chart. Each of these two series fit into one spot 
		(Lanthanides in the the lanthanum place, and Actinides 
		into the actinium place).  The reason for this is because 
		electrons are being added to the 4f sublevel instead of to 
		a sublevel of the sixth or outer level.  Hence they all have 
		the same oxidation state (valence) and similar  
		properties.

IONIZATION ENERGY is the minimum energy needed to remove an 
		electron from an atom.

	FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY takes off the first (outermost) 
		electron.

	


	SECOND AND SUBSEQUENT IONIZATION ENERGIES remove 
		  more electrons. The factors that determine the ionization 
		energies are: 
			distance from the nucleus (inverse square law)
			whether the orbital is filled or half-filled
			whether there is a noble gas structure
			the shielding effect of electrons in lower orbitals 
			the ratio of protons to remaining electrons (guards 
				to prisoners ratio).

	METHODS OF IONIZATION include photoionization (using light 
		energy like ultraviolet rays), thermionic emission (using 
		high temperature to boil off electrons), and electron 
		bombardment (kick 'em out with a stream of electrons 
		from another source).

THE IONIC BOND is formed by electron transfer (the rip off).  An 
		element whose electrons are loosely held (first and 
		second columns of chart) surrenders its outer   
		electron(s) to an element with high ionization energy 
		(that therefore has a high electron affinity).  The latter 
		are the right hand side of the chart (like the halogens). 
		When the transfer is completed, we have ions produced.  
		The unlike charges of the ions holds them together 
		electrically.  Hence, the ionic bond.  Elements from 
		opposite sides of the chart have very different ionization 
		energies, so that one atom is strong enough to rip off 
		electrons from the other.

NEGATIVE IONS are those which have gained electrons and therefore 
		have more negative charges than positive charges        
		(protons).

POSITIVE IONS are those which have lost electrons and therefore 
		have fewer negative charges than positive charges       
		(protons).

ONLY ELECTRONS FLOW to produce ions.  The protons are deep 
		  down in the nucleus and stay there. (Except in nuclear        
		reactions, but that's another story ).  So electrons are 
		either added or subtracted to make ions.

THE COVALENT BOND is the sharing of electrons. There is no rip off 
		because the ionization energies of the atoms are not 
		drastically different in magnitude.  The result is neither 
		atom is strong enough to remove the electron from the 
		other atom.  (Like two kids of equal strength trying to 
		take a ball away from each other.  They both can only  
		hold on to it, neither succeeding in taking it and thus 
		they are bonded).

VAN DER WAALS FORCES are weak interactions between 
	 MOLECULES. 
		(Note: chemical bonds are the forces between ATOMS in 
		a molecule whereas van der waals forces are between 
		MOLECULES). These weak forces are caused by the         
		attraction between protons in one molecule and  
		electrons in an adjacent molecule.  Because of the      
		greater distance between the particles in one molecule 
		and another, van der waals forces are only 1/100 as 
		strong as the covalent bond.

MELTING AND BOILING TEMPERATURES are caused by the van der 
		waals interaction. Solids melt and liquids evaporate 
		  when the van der waals forces between molecules are 
		  broken.

THE HYDROGEN BOND is a special situation that exists between the 
		hydrogen atom in one molecule (like water) and the 
		oxygen atom in another molecule (like another water 
		molecule).  This bond is ten times weaker than the 
		covalent bond, and ten times stronger than the van der 
		waals force. The hydrogen bond caused water to have its 
		unusual properties of high boiling point, high melting 
		point, high surface tension, and its formation of the six-
		sided ring structure in ice.  The latter causes water to 
		expand upon freezing, become less dense, and float in 
		water.

REGELATION is the process of melting ice by pressure.  Inasmuch as 
		water expands upon freezing, pressure will reverse the 
		process, forcing water to melt.  Then when the pressure 
		is released, the water re-freezes (re-gells).


		      *** ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ***


It will be necessary for you to use your organic notes from big chem 
	and check out a chem book and go through the chapters on 
	organic.


THE MEANING OF ORGANIC -- 
	Originally it meant from Living Substances-- The Vital Force  
	(force of life) was needed to create organic substances.  
	But in l828 Woller synthesized Urea from non-vital materials.  
	Now Organic Chemistry is the study of CARBON COMPOUNDS.

COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF ORGANIC vs INORGANIC COMPDS:

		 INORGANIC, about 100,000.
		ORGANIC, over 8 million and increasing by               
			300,000/year.

	REASONS WHY THERE ARE SO MANY ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

		1-- Carbon forms stable bonds with itself to make chains.     
		2-- Carbon forms stable bonds with most other elements.
		3-- Carbon forms branched chains.
		4-- Carbon forms ring chains.
		5-- Carbon forms double bonds.
		6-- Carbon forms triple bonds.
		7-- Carbon forms cis-trans isomers.
		8-- Other elements may interrupt the chain.
		9-- All of the above may occur together.


ORGANIC FORMULAS:

     MOLECULAR formulas-- show ratio of atoms, ie  C5H12
     STRUCTURAL formulas-- show arrangement of atoms.
     CONDENSED STRUCTURAL formulas-- reduces to one line.
     ISOMERS-- same molecular formula with a different structure.
			 ex.  C40H82  has 60 trillion isomers!

COMPARISON OF ORGANIC vs INORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
 
	    INORGANIC                                  ORGANIC

     High melting point                 Low melting point
     High boiling point                 Low boiling point
     Non-volatile                       Volatile liquids
     Soluble in aqueous solvents        Insoluble in aqueous solvents
     Insoluble in organic solvents      Soluble in organic solvents
     Have fast reactions                Have slow reactions
     Electrical conductors in           Non-conductors in solution or 
	the molten state                    when molten
     Ionic Bonding                      Covalent bonds & Van Der Waals
					    forces between molecules.


THE GENERAL TYPES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

	SATURATED HYDROCARBONS:
		
		THE ALKANES:

			 THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
			       The first decalog--

	Methane CH4
	Ethane  C2H6
	Propane C3H8
	Butane  C4H10
	Pentane C5H12
	Hexane  C6H14
	Heptane C7H16
	Octane  C8H18
	Nonane  C9H20
	Decane  C10H22

	    "Ma Eats Pot Brownies, Pa Has Hash Or No Dope"

For all of the following you will need to see examples in your Big     
	Chem notes and in the text book.

	*** PRACTICE IN WRITING naming of organic compounds from 
		your Big Chem notes.

NAMING ALKANES-- 
	End in -ane

ALKANE REACTIONS-- 
     MOSTLY INERT--
	  No reaction with strong acids, bases, & redox agents.
	       ex. plastics.

     HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION--
	  With ultraviolet light to break strong covalent bonds. Then 
		halogens can replace the hydrogens.

     NITRATION--
	Nitric acid HO-NO2 replaces hydrogens with nitro groups -NO2.  
		These are the nitro compounds.

     COMBUSTION  ("burn it")--
	Add oxygen and get CO2 and H2O

		   CH4    +  2O2   --->   CO2   +  2H2O

     PYROLYSIS (Cracking)--
	  Heating sans oxygen ---> various decomposition products.



     THE WURTZ REACTION TO LENGTHEN THE CHAIN--

	  A)  Do a Halogen Substitution to put chlorine on the chain,
		R = any alkyl group (alkane, alkene, alkyne).

				    UV
		   R-H   +   Cl2   ----->    R-Cl   +    HCl

	  B)  The WURTZ:
		Sodium rips off the chlorines so that two R groups will 
		   join together to form a compound of double the       
		   number of carbons.

		      2 R-Cl  +  2 Na  ---->   R-R  +  2 NaCl



ALKENES:
	THE CARBON-CARBON DOUBLE BOND--
			These compounds end in -ene.

		THE STRUCTURE OF THE DOUBLE BOND--
			 "Wienie with bun top and bottom."
				
		 PROPERTIES OF THE DOUBLE BOND:
			Highly reactive because--
			    The carbons are closer together.
			    The double bond prevents rotation and 
				  allows the formation of CIS-TRANS ISOMERS, 
				Extra pair of electrons are not so strongly 
				   held (greater dist, from nucleus).
				Energy of extra pair not needed for bonding 
				   so their energy is available for reacting.
				 The extra pair (buns) is out where the action 
				   is.
NAMING ALKENES--
	End in -ene.
    
ALKENE REACTIONS--
    
     HALOGEN ADDITION--
	Halogens will break the second bond and add thereto.
						
						 Br
						 | 
		C-C=C-C-C   + Br2 ---->  C-C-C-C-C
						 |
						 Br     Now we have an alkane!
	

     THE TEST FOR THE DOUBLE BOND:
	Add  bromine and the red colour disappears as the bromine is 
		added to the double bond as in the above reaction.
	
     POLYMERIZATION--
	Building up large molecules from small repeating units using a 
		catalyst to cause polmerization.  Examples are plastics, 
		synthetic fibers, and rubber.

		n = a very large number (thousands of units).

		     cat
       n  H2C=CH  ---------->   -(-CH2-CH-)-n   PVC  (poly vinyl chloride)
	      |      poly              |                 (plastic pipe)
	      Cl                       Cl

		       cat
      n  CH2=CH     ---------> -(CH2-CH-)-n         (polystyrene)
	     |         poly          |               (styrofoam)
	     C6H6                    C6H6                       


		       cat
      n  CH2=CH     --------->    -(CH2-CH-)-n      (nylon, orlon)
	     |         poly             |  
	     CN                         CN


 Polytetrafluoroethene-- "TEFLON"
	A completely halogenated and saturated hydrocarbon--


					     F F F F F F F F F F F  
			cat                  | | | | | | | | | | |       
       n CF2=CF2     ---------------->     F-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- ... 
			poly                 | | | | | | | | | | |   
					     F F F F F F F F F F F    




PETROLEUM PROCESSING:

     SEPARATION OF CRUDE OIL INTO ITS FRACTIONS:

	  FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION--
		
		Each compound has its own boiling point and can be 
			separated by distillation.  Groups of compounds 
			are called  boiling fractions.

	

	BOILING FRACTIONS:                      
		     Because these are ranges, there is an overlap of the 
			  number of carbons.

			Bottle gases
			      CH4 to C4H10  Methane, Ethane, Propane, 
							 Butane.

			Petroleum Ethers
			      C5H10  to  C6H12   Highly volatile liquids for 
							solvents.
			Gasoline
			      C7 to C12                                   

			Kerosene and Jet Fuel
			      C12to C16

			Lubricating Oils
			      C16  to C20

			Greases
			      C20  to C30

			Paraffin Wax
			      C30 to C40

			Asphalt
				C60  and up

	CRACKING--               
	       Breaking up large oil sized molecules into smaller gasoline 
		   molecules in order to increase the amount of gasoline 
		   produced.
				C16  ------>   2C8
				    this is done by 
					A)  Thermal Pyrolysis (heating sans 
						oxygen so it won't burn)
					 B)  Catalytic action
						The "Cat Cracker"

     POLYMERIZATION--  
	Building large molecules from smaller ones (changing                                        
	     butane into gasoline to increase the yield of the latter).         
				   cat
			2 C4      ------>   C8

     REFORMING--
	Rearranging molecules to increase "octane rating".  Branched      
	     and ring chains burn more slowly to increase engine        
	     performance.

	  CATALYTIC-- ISOMERIZATION--  
		Branching the chain:
											
						      C     C
						      |     |
			C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C   ----->    C-C-C-C-C
						      |
						      C  
				   Octane   ----->  2,2,4-trimethyl pentane
						      (100 octane gasoline)
     ADDITIVES--
	Chemicals added to improve performance.

     OCTANE RATING--
	The comparison of fuel performance in a standard test engine.  
	    The octane rating scale calls Heptane "0 octane" and 2,2,4 -           
	     trimethyl pentane  "100 octane". Modern fuels can exceed           
	     "100 octane".

ALKYNES--

     THE CARBON-CARBON TRIPLE BOND--
	   
	  THE SITUATION OF THE TRIPLE BOND--
	      Sigma and pi bonds--
		    (The wienie with buns top/bottom, front/back).

     REACTIONS--
		are like those of the alkenes except they may happen 
		twice-- once for each of the extra bonds.

     PREPARATION OF ALKYNES--
	     Coke  +  lime  ----->  calcium carbide  +  carbon monoxide
					  3000oC
		    3 C   +  CaO   -------->   CaC2 +  CO

		  CaC2 +  2H2 O  ---->  H-C = C-H  +   Ca(OH)2 
						      acetylene
			On burning it's,  "Ah, the LIMELIGHT"

			 2C2H2   +  5O2  ---->   4CO2  +   2H2O

DIENES, TRIENES, Etc.
	Have more than one set of double or triple bonds.

     RUBBER--
	2-methyl-1,3-butadiene polymerizes like this:
			  cat
    n  CH2 =CH-C=CH2    ---------->      -(CH2-CH=C-CH2)-n          
	       |          poly                    |
	       CH3                                CH3                                                                                                          
						 rubber

     VULCANIZING RUBBER--  Cross links long chains (with sulfur 
				chains so they won't come apart when 
				pulled.

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS--
	The Benzene Ring, a conjugated system of alternate double            
	   and single bonds.  The electrons are delocalized, that is         
	   spread out to give a uniform electron cloud around the            
	   molecule.

	BENZENE--
		C6H6,  the beginning substance of an enormous number 
		  of organic chemicals and biological substances.

	TOLUENE--
		1-methylbenzine, the starting compound for many useful 
		organic compounds.  Ex 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, "TNT".

	NAPHTHALENE--
		Two benzine rings attached together.  The beginning 
		substance for a multitude of important compounds such 
		as dyes.

     OLDER SYSTEM OF NAMING BENZENES--

	  Para, ortho, and meta positions on the benzine ring. 
		ie. paradichloro benzene, moth crystals.

     PHENOLS--
	   have the -OH group attached to the benzene ring.  Starting      
	   compounds for another huge family of organic substances.

An alkyl group is any Alkane, Alkene, or Alkyne.  An Aromatic group 
	is any compound having a Benzene structure.

ETHERS--
	have an oxygen separating two or more alkyl groups.  
		R-O-R   R-O-Ar    Etc.   The oxy's.

	ie. methoxyethane,  CH3-O-CH2CH3.  Hospital ether is    
		ethoxyethane (or diethyl ether).

THE CARBONYL COMPOUNDS--
	have a double bonded oxygen attached to a carbon.

				    --C=O
				      |
			
     ALDEHYDES--
	have the carbonyl group at the end of the chain.
	
		    R-C=O
			|                or RCHO       end in -al.                       
			H
			
			ie. methanal  (formaldehyde)   H-C=O
							 |
							 H
     KETONES--
	have the carbonyl group not at the end of the chain.


		   R--O=O     number where it is and it ends in  -one.
			|                CH3
			R'               |
				ie.    O=C-CH2-CH2-CH3       2-pentanone

    
ALDOHEXOSE -- SUGARS    See Text pg. 626


    ALCOHOLS  "evil spirits"--
		  have an -OH group on the carbon chain.

	  COMMON ALCOHOLS--
		methanol,  CH3OH,  "wood alcohol".
		ethanol, CH3CH2OH,  "booze".
		2-propanol, CH3CH2CH3,, "rubbing alcohol".
			       |
			       OH

	  NAMING ALCOHOLS--
		number where it is and it ends in -ol.

			CH3-CH2-CH-CH3
			    |             2-butanol
			    OH
						  
	  DENATURED ALCOHOL--
		has government poisons added to discourage drinking it.  
		This is done to industrial ethanol so that the liquor tax is 
		not charged for industrial usage.  You must pay to play!

	  ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL--
		is 100% pure ethanol.  This can only be accomplished by 
		a chemical process to remove the last 5% of water.  It is 
		used for special chemical reactions where water must be 
		absent.  (At 95%, the water-ethanol mixture becomes 
		azeotropic which means that the common boiling points 
		prevent further separation by distillation).

	  PROOF OF ALCOHOL--
		a test used by early California miners to be sure the 
		barkeep had not watered down the whiskey.  Gun  
		powder soaked in whiskey will burn if it is at least 50% 
		 ("good stuff").  This is "proof" that all is OK.  Since a 
		score of  "100" was given for good work, 50% was "100 
		proof" that there was no foul play.  Hence proof is twice 
		the percentage.  (Another typical US measurement!).





	  PREPARATION OF ALCOHOL--
	       Fermentation of carbohydrates--
			      yeast
		  C6H12O6  ------------->  2 CH3CH2-OH    +   2CO2
			      enzymes

ORGANIC ACIDS--

     THE CARBOXYLIC ACID GROUP--      R--C=O        -oic acid
					 |
					 O-H
     COMMON ACIDS--

		Methanoic acid (formic acid)--  bee stings.

		Ethanoic acid  (acetic acid)--  vinegar.

		Butanoic acid  (yuk)--  essence of barf.

	  SALICYLIC ACID--  
		Phenol with an acid group attached.  Part of aspirin.

ESTERS--
	   are compounds derived from the reaction of a organic acid       
	   with an alcohol.  
		  Acid  +  alcohol  ----->   ester  +   water

		R--C=O     +    R'--OH  ---->   R--C=O  +   H2O
		     |                             |
		      C-OH                         C-O-R'

	Esters are the compounds that give fruits their characteristic      
	   flavors and odours.  ie. methyl salycilate is "Oil of 		  
	   Wintergreen".

AMINES-- 
	have the NH2 group

		R-NH2      -amine

			CH3-CH2-NH3         Ethyl amine

     As in VITAMINES.

			       HERE ENDETH THESE NOTES
