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Essay Name       : 1345.txt 
Uploader         : Afshen
Email Address    :  
Language         : Basic not to much detail
Subject          : Biology
Title            : Morality and the Human Genome Project
Grade            : 82%
School System    : Community College
Country          : USA
Author Comments  : Basic paper for use in Human Reproduction classes
Teacher Comments : Very interesting angle
Date             : 11/96
Site found at    : Needed a paper
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Morality and the Human Genome Project












Bibliography
Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Mapping Our
	Genes: Genome Projects: How Big, How Fast?, Johns Hopkins University
	Press: Baltimore,1988.
Gert, Bernard, Morality and the New Genetics: A Guide for Students and Health
	Care Providers, Jones and Bartlett: Sudbury, Massachusetts,1996.
Lee, Thomas F., The Human Genome Project: Cracking the Genetic Code of Life,
	Plenum Press: New York, 1991.
Murphy, Timothy F., and Lappe, Marc, ed., Justice and the Human Genome
	Project, University of California Press: Berkeley, 1994.

	Does the Human Genome Project affect the moral standards of society? 
Can the information produced by it become a beneficial asset or a moral evil?   
For example, in a genetic race or class distinction the use of the X chromosome
markers can be used for the identification of a persons ethnicity or class
(Murphy,34). A seemingly harmless collection of information from the
advancement of the Human Genome Project. But, lets assume this information is
used to explore ways to deny entry into countries, determine social class, or even
who gets preferential treatment.  Can the outcome of this information effect the
moral standards of a society?
	The answers to the above and many other questions are relative to the
issues facing the Human Genome Project.  To better understand these topics a
careful dissection of the terminology must be made. Websters Dictionary defines
morality as ethics, upright conduct, conduct or attitude judged from the moral
standpoint.  It also defines a moral as concerned with right and wrong and the
distinctions between them. A Genome is "the total of an individuals genetic
material," including, "that part of the cell that controls heredity" (Lee,4).
Subsequently, "reasearch and technology efforts aimed at mapping and
sequencing large portions or entire genomes are called genome projects"
(Congress,4).  Genome projects are not a single organizations efforts, but instead
a group of organizations working in government and private industry through
out the world.   Furthermore, the controversies surrounding the Human Genome
Project can be better explained by the past events leading to the project, the
structure of the project, and the moral discussion of the project.
	The major events of genetic history are important to the Human Genome
Project because the structure and most of the project deals with genetics.
Genetics is the study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits
(Congress,202). The basic beginnings of genetic history lay in the ancient
techniques of selective breeding to yield special characteristics in later
generations. This was and still is a form of genetic manipulation by "employing
appropriate selection for physical and behavioral traits" (Gert,2).  Futheralong,
the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, on garden peas established the
quantitative discipline of genetics.  Mendel's work explained the inheritance of
traits can be stated by factors passed from one generation to the next; a gene. 
The complete set of genes for an organism is called it's genome (Congress,3). 
These traits can be explained due to the inheritance of single or multiple genes
affected by factors in the environment (3).  Mendel also correctly stated that two
copies of every factor exists and that one factor of inheritance could be dominate
over another (Gert,3).The next major events of genetic history involved DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).  DNA, as a part of genes, was discovered to be a double
helix that encodes the blueprints for all living things (Congress,3). DNA was
found to be packed into chromosomes, of which 23 pairs existed in each cell of
the human body.  Furthermore, one chromosome of each pair is donated from
each parent. DNA was also found to be made of nucleotide chains made of four
bases, commonly represented by A, C, T, and G.  Any ordered pair of bases
makes a sequence. These sequences are the instructions that produce molecules,
proteins, for cellular structure and biochemical functions.  In relation, a marker
is any location on a chromosome where inheritance can be identified and tracked
(202).  Markers can be expressed areas of genes (DNA) or some segment of DNA
with no known coding function but an inheritance could be traced (3). It is these
markers that are used to do genetic mapping.  By the use of genetic mapping
isolated areas of DNA are used to find if a person has a specific trait, inherent
factor, or any other numerous genetic information.  In conclusion, the genetic
history of ancient selective breeding to Mendel's garden peas to the current 
isolation of genes has been reached only through collaborative data of many
organizations and scientist.
	The Human Genome Project has several objectives.  To better understand
the moral issues that exist the project itself must be examined. Among the many
objectives, DNA databases that include sequences, location markers, genes, and
the function of similar genes (Congress,7).  The creation of human chromosome
maps for DNA markers that would allow the location of genes to be found.  A
repository of research materials including ordered sets of DNA fragments
representing the complete DNA in chromosomes. New instruments for analysis
of DNA.  New methods of analysis of DNA through chemical, physical, and
computational methods. Develop similar research technologies for other
organisms.  Finally, to determine the DNA sequence of a large fraction of the
human genome and other organisms.  The objectives of the Human Genome
Project are carried out by organizations such as the Department of Energy,
National Institutes of Health, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and various
private organizations.  These organizations all have two shared features, placing
"new methods and instruments into toolkit of molecular biology" and "build
reasearch infrastructure for genetics."  Making the directives of the Human
Genome Project apparent is important in making a moral judgment on this
genetic technology. 
	Any attempt to resolve moral issues involving new information from the
Human Genome Project requires direct, clear, and total understanding of
common morality.  Subsequently, a moral theory is the attempt to explain,
justify, and make visible "the moral system that people use in making their
moral judgments and how to act when confronting a moral problem" (Gert,31).
This theory is based on rational decisions. With this in mind, the moral system
must be known by everyone who is judged by it. This leads to the rational
statement that "morality must be a public system" (33). The individuals of the
public system must know what morality requires of them, and the judgments
and guidelines made must be rational to them.  Just like any game, the players
play by a set of rules and these rules dictate how play is done. The game is
played only when everyone knows how to play.  When rules are broken
penalties are inforced by the other players judgment according to the rules
allowed.  However, if everyone agrees to change the rules then the game
continues without any penalties.  Therefore, "the goal of common morality is to
lessen the amount of harm suffered by those protected by it" and it is
constrained by the knowledge and need to be understood by all it applies to (47). 
Justified violations also exist in common morality.  Just like in the game, a
change in the rules causes acceptance, morality can be viewed not as an evil by
the public perception but as a decision backed by common morals.
	Based on the pattern of common morality the issues of genetic race or
class distinction or any other controversies involving the Human Genome Project
can be put to a set of common moral standards. Just like the moral standard that
says killing is wrong but killing is justifiable in self-defense, the Human Genome
Project can be argued along the same pattern of moral discussion.
The justifiable violations that genetic information is based on depends on the
common morality which is based on the public system which is based on the
decisions of right and wrong.  In conclusion, the moral dilemma of genetics is
that will it be an asset to the individuals public perception of common morality
or will it be an evil to the individuals public perception of common morality
based on the right and wrong of the information.  This answer is based on the
societies structure. In one time period it may be accepted in another in may not.
	 
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