Subject: Sci.chem FAQ - Part 3 of 7
Date: Sat, 18 Nov 1995 21:46:36 GMT
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Subject: 10. Traditional Laboratory and Chemical Safety Information Sources
 
10.1  Where can I find Material Safety Data Sheets? 

Most suppliers of chemicals will provide a MSDS on request if you are a
customer. Several major chemical suppliers have combined their own MSDS 
sheets and issued major compilations, eg Sigma-Aldrich [1] ( available on 
CD-ROM or Magnetic Tape for $1,500), which may be available in the
library. If a librarian can not locate the MSDS database, then try the 
Health and Safety Officer, who should know where to find MSDS. Often 
companies purchase a compilation and make it available on a computer
network for in-house use.

10.2  Where can I find hazard information for a chemical? 

Chemical suppliers usually include common hazard information in their
catalogues. Merck and Hawley also list some information. Large general
compilations include Sax, and Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials
[2], Sigma-Aldrich Library of Chemical Safety Data [3], CRC Handbook of
Laboratory Safety [4], and Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory [5]. It is very 
important to realise that hazard information is frequently updated, and so 
information should be complemented with an online search of safety databases. 
If the chemical is already being used at your site, it is probable that the 
Safety Officer or Laboratory Manager already have the required information. 
The Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards [6], can be used to check for
possible hazardous reactions. Highly toxic, radioactive, and carcinogenic 
compounds require special precautions, and the Safety Officer or Laboratory 
Manager should be able to provide the appropriate resources to ascertain if 
the compound can be handled safely.

10.3  Where can I find detailed safety & toxicity data? 

The very first question you should ask is, "Am I qualified to assess
the data?". If the answer is no, then your best option is to locate somebody
who is. This can be a Health and Safety Officer, staff of an appropriate
government organisation (eg OSHA, NIOSH ), or a specialist consultant.
Most institutions have a policy of ensuring workers are given sufficient 
information about hazards to ensure they can make an informed decision.

There are several major compilations that are usually found in libraries, 
including RTECS, Sax, and the three-volume Sigma-Aldrich Library of
Regulatory and Safety Data [7]. In general, because safety information can 
become obsolete rapidly, these should only be used as an introductory guide, 
and they should be complemented with either an on-line search or consultation
with 
an expert. Detailed information for unusual chemicals is often difficult to
locate in the published literature, and may only be available to qualified
professionals in the health and safety fields. Sometimes the toxicity has to
be inferred from published information on related compounds, and such 
assessments should always be performed by experts. 
   
10.3  Where can I find occupational exposure limits? 

There are several organisations responsible for establishing the
occupational exposure limits. The values used most extensively in industry, 
but also the most controversial, are those of the ACGIH. Their TLVs and 
Biological Exposure Indices [8] have been used in many countries as initial 
guidelines until relevant local expertise can assess their suitability. 
They are also misused, despite the clear warnings in the front of the 
booklet. The US Government also has Permissible Exposures Limits set by the 
Dept.of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and Recommended
Exposure Limits set by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaff Maximum Concentrations in the
Workplace are often also used. The ACGIH publishes an excellent compilation
of all these limits [9], thus facilitating a review of how experts perceive
the occupational hazards. The International Labour Office in Geneva 
publishes a comprehensive " Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety "
which also covers chemicals [10].
  
10.5  What is the most poisonous compound? 

" All substances are poisons. There is not one that is not a poison. The 
  correct dose differentiates a poison and a remedy". (Paracelsus 1493-1541)

The McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology [11] lists the 
following table:

"Approximate Median Lethal Doses of Some Toxins per kg of Bodyweight"
Toxin                    Dose                Test Animal
tetanus               1 nanogram           mouse, probably human
Botulinal neurotoxin  1 nanogram           mouse, human
shigella              1 nanogram          monkey, human
shigella              1 microgram             mouse
Diphtheria          100 nanograms             human
diphtheria            1.6 milligrams          mouse
Ricin                 1 microgram             human

Ricin is a toxin lectin and hemaaggulutinin isolated from the castor bean.
Merck reports 1 microgram of ricin D nitrogen / kg (ip) in mice and
ricin molecular weight is about 65,000. I don't have the nitrogen
content, and so can not work out ug of ricin/kg. Ricin has been shown to
contain four lectins, of which the RCL III (aka Ricin D ) and RCL IV are
the toxins.

Merck also reports that saxitoxin ( from shellfish - [C10H17N7O4]2+ ) as 
having a LD50 of 3-9 micrograms/kg for mice when given iv, 10ug/kg (ip), and 
263ug/kg(oral). Palytoxin ( from coral - C129H223N3054 - structure shown in
Merck ) is listed as the most toxic non-proteinaceous substance known, and 
has an LD50 of 0.45ug/kg (iv) and 50-100ng/kg (ip) when given to mice.   
                  
10.6  Where can I find laboratory safety guides?

The journals "Chemical Health and Safety", and "Journal of Chemical 
Education" have articles on many aspects of laboratory safety. Safety 
Officers and Laboratory Managers at educational institutions and companies 
are likely to have several guides, and a polite request should obtain a loan 
or copy of one, even if you aren't at that institution.  

There are several useful books. The most popular are:-
CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety [4]
  - good general discussion of laboratory safety issues.
Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory [5]
  - good general discussion of laboratory safety concepts with data.
Guidelines for Laboratory Design: Health and Safety Considerations [12].
  - modern design concepts for new and refurbished laboratories.   
Laboratory Health and Safety Handbook: A Guide for the Preparation of a
Chemical Hygiene Plan [13]
  - such a plan is required by OSHA, and additional examples may also be 
    available from chemistry departments of local educational institutes.


------------------------------

Subject: 11. Traditional Specialist Chemical Information Sources
     
11.1  Where can I find spectral libraries/databases? 

The most likely place is near to an instrument. These are not usually
in general technical libraries, but are kept near the instruments.
A polite request to the person in charge of the instrument should identify
who to contact for permission to use the library or database. There is
some spectral information in reference texts, such as the Rubber Handbook
and the Merck Index, but most compilations are now so large that they cover 
several volumes. There are several compilations that are available 
commercially, eg chemical manufacturers such as Aldrich ( IR ($450)[1], 
FT-IR ($795)[2], 60Mhz H1 NMR ($450)[3], and 300MHz H1 + 75MHz C13 NMR 
($975) [4]), and also from government agencies eg the EPA/NIH Mass Spec. 
compilation [5] is sold by several instrument manufacturers. 

11.2  Where can I find polymer chemistry information?

The first stop should be the multi-volume Encyclopedia of Polymer Science 
and Engineering [6], which should be in most technical libraries. Specific
polymers are covered in much less detail in Kirk Othmer. There are
several journals devoted to polymer science and chemistry, including the
Journal of Polymer Science.

11.3  Where can I find analytical chemistry information?
     
There is a sci.chem.analytical group where specific questions can be
posted after you have attempted to find the information in the following 
sources. For qualitative information, the spot test books by Fiegl [7,8] 
and "Semi-micro Vogel"[9], are good starting points. For introductory
quantitative analysis, "Quantitative Inorganic" [10],"Practical Organic 
Chemistry"[11] by Vogel are good introductions to non-instrumental 
techniques. The multi-volume "Treatise on Analytical Chemistry" by
Kolholf and Elving [12] comprehensively discusses most techniques, and 
several volumes of the ACS Series "Techniques in Chemistry" [13] also cover
analytical procedures. " Instrumental Methods of Analysis" by Willard,
Merritt, Dean and Settle [14], and "Analytical Instrumentation Handbook" by
Ewing [15] provide a good introduction to chemical instrumentation. Most 
educational institutions will have equivalent texts if they are not using the 
above.

For specific analyses it is often desirable to use standard procedures,
especially if your laboratory is seeking ISO 9001 accreditation, or if the
results are likely to be disputed. Some well known compilations of standard 
methods include:-

Laboratory Reagents
- usually specified by manufacturers or chemical societies
  BDH 'Analar' Standards for Laboratory Chemicals [16]
  ACS Reagent Chemicals [17]

Materials, Industrial Chemicals, and Finished Products.
- usually the monographs in the following volumes also specify assay and 
  impurity limits, as well as detailing the analytical procedure.
  ASTM - Issued annually, cover physical and chemical testing of a wide range
         of industrial products. Often require specialised test equipment.
  ISO - International standards, usually derived from US(ASTM), UK(BSI) or
        FRG(DIN) standards. Similar to above.

Pharmaceuticals
- usually the pharmacopoeia have monographs and methods, but some methods
  are also specified in National Formulary or Pharmaceutical Codex volumes,
  which may be separate from the pharmacopoeia.
- common pharmacopoeia are USP, BP, and EP - with Martindale [18] often used 
  to ascertain where and when a specific monograph appeared.   

Food 
- often the procedures specified in Government legislation.
- The Official Methods of the AOAC [19] covers many routine US methods.

Environmental Pollution
- the procedures are usually specified in the relevant legislation, and
  frequently US EPA procedures are used. Several common EPA procedures are 
  now available on computer disk [20,21].

Petroleum
- usually covered by ASTM, ISO or DIN, but there are some unique IP 
  ( Institute of Petroleum - UK ) procedures that are also used.
- "Chromatography in Petroleum Analysis"[22], summarises popular techniques.

Gases
- instrument manufacturers have fairly detailed procedures for process gases.
- "The Analysis of Gases by Chromatography"[23], provides useful examples. 

Water and Wastewater
- the APHA/WWA/WPCF standard methods are most often used [24]
- many tests are also covered by ASTM, ISO, and DIN procedures
- alternative techniques are described in "Water Analysis" [25]
- organics in water are covered by Crompton [26]
- most aspects of water chemistry are detailed in Franks [27]

Sample Preparation
- consumable and instrument manufacturers often provide detailed manuals
  and guides free.
- "Methods of Decomposition in Inorganic Analysis" [28] covers a wide range
  of preparations for spectroscopy.
- The "Handbook of Analytical Derivatization Reactions" [29] and the 
  " Handbook of Derivatives for Chromatography" [30] cover many of the 
  techniques for gas and liquid chromatography.

Obviously there are several journals devoted to various aspects of 
analytical chemistry. The April issue of Analytical Chemistry publishes  
a review of papers published during the previous two years. The review 
alternates between Fundamental and Application Reviews and is a quick means 
of catching current trends if you are unable to locate an expert.     

11.4  Where can I find environmental chemistry information?

There are several standard texts used by environmental chemistry classes 
that provide good general introductions, eg "Environmental Chemistry" [31]
"Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry [32], and "Environmental Organic 
Chemistry" [33]. They should be available in most technical libraries. The 
monthly journal "Environmental Science and 
Technology" covers most aspects of environment chemistry. "Chemosphere" 
concentrates on toxins such as PCBs and Dioxin, and " Science of the Total
Environment also covers most aspects. Government agencies such as the EPA
also publish large amounts of information, and many environmental groups
also provide significant amounts of technical information. There are a
range of specialist texts that cover specific pollutants, eg "Metals and 
their Compounds in the Environment: Occurrence, Analysis and Biological 
Relevance" [34].

The sci.environment Usenet group may well be a better place to request
environmental chemistry information than sci.chem, but please remember 
to move discussions to talk.environment. 

11.5  Where can I find physical chemistry information? 

General introductory information will be available in any technical library
where chemistry is taught, and one of the more popular modern texts is 
"Physical Chemistry" by P.W.Atkins [35], and a classical text is
"Textbook of Physical Chemistry" by S.Glasstone [36]. The multi-volume ACS 
series "Physical Methods of Chemistry"[37] also covers many physical 
chemistry techniques. There are also the Journal of Chemical Physics and the 
Journal of Physical Chemistry. Frankly, I would not have a clue where else 
to go.
     
11.6  Where can I find inorganic chemistry information?

General introductory information will be available in any technical library
where chemistry is taught. One popular text is "Inorganic Chemistry" by
D.F.Shriver, P.W.Atkins, and C.H.Langford [38], which also has the answers 
available as a separate book. "Inorganic Vogel"[39], also discusses the theory
of the analyses. There are three major multi-volume inorganic encyclopedias. 
Mellor is frequently found in public libraries, and provides a broad cover
of the field, however the more comprehensive is Gmelin [40], which will be 
available in most institution libraries. The more recent developments and 
mechanisms are covered in the multi-volume "Encyclopedia of Inorganic
Chemistry" [41], which may be difficult to find due to its $2500 price. 
"Advanced Inorganic Chemistry" [42] by F.A.Cotton and G.Wilkinson provides a 
good base to start. There are several journals that cover aspects of 
inorganic chemistry.

11.7  Where can I find organic chemistry information?

General introductory information will be available in any technical library
where chemistry is taught. One popular modern text is " Organic Chemistry " 
by T.W.G.Solomons [43], but my favourite is "Organic Chemistry"[44] by Fieser
and Fieser - a much more practical discussion of organic molecules. 
Once you are familiar with organic chemistry mechanisms then "Advanced
Organic Chemistry" by Carey and Sandberg [45] is a good overview.  

There are several compilations of organic synthesis techniques to assist
researchers. The multi-volume sets "Organic Reactions" [46], and "Reagents 
for Organic Synthesis" [47], are examples of sets that will be available from 
institution libraries. There are some good theoretical texts available, eg
"The Logic of Chemical Synthesis" [48]. For specific preparation and 
properties of individual compounds, then Heilbron [49] and Beilstein [50], 
are the initial resources of choice. There are several journals devoted to 
organic chemistry in general, including Journal of Organic Chemistry, 
Tetrahedron, etc.. Specific branches of organic chemistry, such as 
Carbohydrates, Lipids, or Proteins have their own journals, as do 
applications such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides.   
  
11.8  Where can I find industrial chemistry information? 

The best single volume remains Shreve's "Chemical Process Industries" [51].
There are three major multi-volume encyclopedias, Kirk Othmer, Ullmann,
and McKetta, that cover many aspects of industrial chemistry and at
least one is usually available in a public library. There are also several
journals that provide good overviews of industrial chemistry, the easiest
to read being C&EN, and Chemtech. Research is usually published
in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry ( which is an excellent source 
for historical research ),  and specialist chemical engineering journals.

11.9  Where can I find pharmaceutical chemistry information?  
  
Pharmaceutical research often is initially reported in patent literature,
consequently patent searching is a good place to start. The Merck Index is
focused on pharmaceuticals, and also provides excellent leads to the 
research literature. There are several pharmaceutical chemistry books, such 
as Goodman and Gilman [52], and "Essentials of Medicinal Chemistry" [53], 
that provide overviews of the field. The Journal of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 
is a good source for research articles. Details of chemicals appearing in 
formulated products can be found in the "Handbook of Pharmaceutical 
Excipients" [54].

------------------------------

Subject: 12. Nomenclature
     
12.1  What are CAS Registry Numbers?

When chemicals are first encountered by the Chemical Abstracts Service, they
are assigned a unique number when they are registered. These numbers are not
related to any structure or property of the molecule, they are arbitrarily
assigned. It should be remembered that occasionally a compound may be 
accidentally assigned two or more numbers - especially industrial products
that have not been completely characterised. When this is discovered, one of
the numbers is no longer used. The numbers usually take the form of
[xx-yy-z to xxxxxx-yy-z] and square brackets are often used in monographs to
identify the CAS Registry Number (RN). The easiest way to locate the CAS RN 
for commercially-available chemicals is to look in suppliers catalogues 
( eg Aldrich) or compilations ( eg Merck or Hawley ), almost all chemical
texts now list the RN, and several ( eg Merck Index and Aldrich ) have a 
cross-reference Index. The RN is extremely useful for on-line searching of 
Chemical Abstracts and several other popular chemistry-related databases, 
but is not particularly useful for the hardcopy version, except to confirm 
compound identity.

12.2  What are the correct names of recently-discovered elements? 
     
This is a very contentious issue, and it depends where you stand. The
Transfermium Working Group was established in 1986 by the International Union 
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure 
and Applied Physics (IUPAP). The working  group published several reports,
and then made recommendations based on those reports. The IUPAC Commission
on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry met in Balantonfured ( Hungary ) on
31st August 1994 to consider the names for elements 101-109. The 20 members 
decided by secret ballot (16:4) that an element should not be named after
a living person.  They then considered the Working Group report and chose
names for the elements, but not necessarily in the order suggest. 
They really threw a spanner in the works for the USA, who wanted to name
an element after a living person. The following is the IUPAC/IUPAP list, as
reported in Pure and Applied Chemistry [1], and I've just added a note to 
some names. The recommendations were subject to ratification by the IUPAC 
Council, which meets in Guildford (UK) on 10-11th August 1995, however it
now appears likely that the IUPAC bureau  ( which meets just before the 
Council ) will revert the names to provisional status, and allow a further 
five months of comment, followed by a reconsideration of the names. The 
final recommendations will then be presented to the 1997 Council meeting.  

Element    Name       Symbol  Votes            Note 
101      Mendelevium    Md     20      Mendelev (Russia)
102      Nobelium       No     20      Nobel (Sweden)
103      Lawrencium     Lr     20      Lawrence (USA)
104      Dubnium        Db     19      Dubna = Russian Research Centre
105      Joliotium      Jl     18      F. Joliot-Curie (Fr)    
106      Rutherfordium  Rf     18      E. Rutherford (NZ)
107      Bohrium        Bh     20      N. Bohr (Denmark)
108      Hahnium        Hn     19      O. Hahn (Germany)
109      Meitnerium     Mt     20      L. Meitner (Austria) 

The American Chemical Society favours

104      Rutherfordium
105      Hahnium
106      Seaborgium
107      Nielsbohrium
108      Hassium
109      Meitnerium

12.3  What is the nomenclature system for CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs?

The CFC naming system was developed by T.Midgley,Jr. and A.L.Henne in 1929, 
and further refined by J.D.Park. Originally, organic molecules that contained
Chlorine and Fluorine were all referred to as CFCs. Today, the group is
subdivided into CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, and Halons. The naming system consists of:-

CFC-0123a  where 0 = Carbon atoms - 1 ( omitted if 0 )
                 1 = Hydrogen atoms + 1
                 2 = Fluorine atoms
                 3 = Chlorine atoms replaced by Bromine
                 a = letter added to identify isomers, the "normal" isomer in
                     any number has the smallest mass difference on each
                     carbon, and a, b, or c are added as the masses diverge 
                     from normal.

 CFC-11    CCl3F        trichlorofluoromethane                   [75-69-4]
 CFC-12    CCl2F2       dichlorodifluoromethane                  [75-71-8]
HCFC-22    CHClF2       chlorodifluoromethane                    [75-45-6]
HCFC-123a  CHClFCClF2   1,2 dichloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethane      [354-23-4] 
 HFC-23    CHF3         trifluoromethane                         [75-46-7]
 HFC-134   CHF2CHF2     1,1,2,2 tetrafluoroethane               [359-35-3]    
 HFC-134a  CH2FCF3      1,2,2,2 tetrafluoroethane               [811-97-2]

Halon 1211 CBrClF2
Halon 1301 CBrF3
Halon 2402 C2Br2F4
 
There are several other refrigerants, some of which are hydrocarbons or
hydrocarbon blends, and their naming is specified by ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 
34-1992  

Another technique for naming CFCs uses the addition of 90 to the CFC number
to produce a "def" number which corresponds to the CHF composition. If
(e + f) < (2d + 2), then additional atoms are required for saturation. This
technique has been described in detail in the Journal of Chemical Education.  
[2]

 ASHRAE    +90     Empirical Composition     
HCFC-123   213     C2HF3(Cl2)
 HFC-134a  224     C2H2F4

12.4  How can I get the IUPAC chemical name from traditional names?

It depends. Usually the quickest way is to look the name up in a chemical
supplier's catalog, MSDS, or a standard text like Merck or Hawley. You can 
also often find the correct name if you refer to a text that lists the 
traditional naming conventions. The following examples highlight the
diversity of names often encountered.

Carbon   Alkane        Alcohol            Aldehyde         Acid

1        methane       methanol           form-            formic
                       carbinol
2        ethane        ethyl              acet-            acetic
                       methyl carbinol
3      n-propane       propyl             propion-         propionic
                       ethyl carbinol
4      n-butane        butyl              buty-            butyric
                       propyl carbinol 
5      n-pentane       amyl               valer-           valeric
                       butyl carbinol                  
6      n-hexane        hexyl              capro-           caproic
                       amyl carbinol
7      n-heptane       enathyl            enath-           enathic
                       hexyl carbinol
8      n-octane        capryl             capryl-          caprylic
9      n-nonane        pelargonic         pelargon-        pelargonic
10     n-decane        capric             caprin-          capric

12     n-dodecane      lauryl                              lauric        
14     n-tetradecane   myristyl                            myristic
16     n-hexadecane    cetyl                               palmitic
       cetane
18     n-octadecane    stearyl                             stearic 
20     n-eicosane      arachidyl                           arachidic

Primary 
 - alcohol    R1CH2OH
 - amine      R1NH2
 eg normal    straight chain    normal octane     n-octane
                                normal butanol    1-butanol  
    iso       branched chain    iso-butane        2-methylpropane
                                iso-butanol       2-methyl-1-propanol 
                                iso-octane        2,2,4-trimethylpentane

Secondary 
 - alcohol    R1R2CHOH
 - amine      R1R2NH
 eg                             sec-butanol       2-butanol       
                                iso-propanol      2-propanol

Tertiary 
 - alcohol    R1R2R3COH
 - amine      R1R2R3N
 eg                             tert-butanol      2-methyl-2-propanol

- substitution onto the benzene ring
  1,2 = ortho                ortho-xylene
  1,3 = meta                 meta-xylene  
  1,4 = para                 para-xylene

However other names get more tricky, especially historical names.
Common examples include:-
- hydrochloric acid = muriatic acid = spirits of salts
- sulfuric acid = oil of vitriol
- nitric acid = aqua fortis
- potassium hydroxide = caustic potash = lye
- sodium hydroxide = caustic soda = lye = soda lye
- aqua regia = 1 part nitric acid and 3 or 4 parts hydrochloric acid
- calcium oxide = calx = lime = quicklime = unslaked lime = burnt lime
- calcium hydroxide = slaked lime = hydrated lime = caustic lime
- calcium carbonate = limestone = chalk = calcite 

Almost all old industries had easy-to-remember names for chemicals they
commonly encountered, and today many of those names can cause confusion.
Some examples from the petroleum industry are:-
- " ether " is a volatile hydrocarbon fraction that does not contain the 
  Cx-O-Cy structure.
- Benzene, toluene and xylene are often called benzol,toluol, and xylol,
  even though they do not contain an -OH group.
- Benzine ( ligroin ) was a saturated hydrocarbon fraction that boiled 
  between 20C and 135C. Gasoline/petrol fractions are still called benzine 
  by some older people. 

12.5  What does "omega-3 fatty acids" mean?

Chemists recognise that they should always number carbon chains from the 
end with the functional group, so the location of double bonds in 
unsaturated fatty acids are numbered from the carboxylic acid end, and
are usually designated by "delta" in their abbreviated names.

Biochemists are more interested in the actual role that chemicals play, 
consequently they will consider the position from the end that is important.
In the case of natural fatty acids the double bonds are usually cis
configured, and it is the distance of the first double bond from the
terminal end of the carbon chain that is important. They use "omega" to
signify that the double bond is cis, and they are counting from the other
end. The great advantage is that chain length can be ignored, and compounds
that are subjected to the same processes are grouped together.
Some examples:-

Common            Chemical                            Chemical    Biochemical

 Name               Name                             d = delta     o = omega

Oleic           cis-9-octadecenoic                    c-C18:1d9     C18:1o9
Elaidic         trans-9-octadecenoic                  t-C18:1d9        -
Linoleic        cis-9,12-octadecadienoic              c-C18:2d9     C18:2o6
alpha linolenic cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic          c-C18:3d9     C18:3o3
gamma linolenic cis-6,9,12-octadecatrienoic           c-C18:3d6     C18:3o6
EPA             cis-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic     c-C20:5d5     C20:5o3
DHA             cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic   c-C22:6d4     C22:6o3

------------------------------

Subject: 13. Illicit and Government Controlled Substances

Contributed by : Yogi Shan <yshan@bnr.ca>
[ mutilated by Bruce Hamilton, who agrees with what Yogi has written, but
  has tried to make the FAQ format consistent, and added his opinion. ]

13.1  What newsgroups/mailing lists discuss illegal drugs?

Note that a vote is currently being taken on the formation of a rec.drugs
hierarchy to capture some of the signal of alt.drugs.* without the noise. 

Current UseNet Newsgroups:
    alt.drugs
    alt.drugs.chemistry
    alt.drugs.hard
    alt.drugs.pot
    alt.drugs.psychedelic
    alt.psychoactives
    alt.hemp
    talk.politics.drugs
    alt.rave
    alt.consciousness

Mailing lists:
    mdma/ecstasy/"E":
      To subscribe, send mail to listpimp@underground.net with the message:
      SUBSCRIBE mdma <your name>
    psychedelics:
      Leri-L (Leri-L Metaprogramming Mail Service)
      Contact: leri-request@pyramid.com
   TTIL is a moderated mailing list whose purpose is the respectful
      discussion of Psychedelic Religion.
      To subscribe send email to:  listproc@phantom.com and put in the body 
      of the message:  subscribe ttil <your email address>

There are several useful FAQs available in alt.drugs - start there with
Yogi's Clandestine Chemistry FAQ. Comprehensive overviews of illicit drug 
information available on the Internet are maintained at several sites, eg 
http://hyperreal.com/drugs/ 

13.2  Where can I obtain a list of illegal drugs?

From the "Law" Section of the "alt.drugs Clandestine Chemistry Primer/FAQ"
by Yogi Shan (yshan@bnr.ca), reproduced by permission:
   The drug statutes (possession, conspiracy, and sale), including Schedules 
   I to V of the Controlled Substances Act (listing all banned and federally 
   regulated drugs and precursors) are in Title 21 [of the United States
   Code] Sections 800-900 (21 USC 800-900).

   The US Code is net.available:
   http://www.pls.com:8001/his/usc.html
   http://thorplus.lib.purdue.edu/gpo/
   
   or as gzip compressed files (by Title):
   ftp://etext.archive.umich.edu/pub/Politics/Conspiracy/AJTeel/USC/

   A current list of proscribed drugs may be obtained by writing to:
                 Drug Enforcement Administration
                 Attn: Drug Control Section
                 1405 "I" Street, N.W.
                 Washington, D.C.  20537

13.3  What is the chemical structure of common illegal drugs?

See the Merck Index for the chemical structure of your favorite poison. 
Heilbron ( aka "Dictionary of Organic Compounds ), a multi-volume set, 
is also excellent, and more up to date, though less commonly available.
Serious structure chasers should also check Beilstein, which often provides
far more detail of properties and structure than Merck or Heilbron. 

13.4  How do I obtain chemical information on illegal drugs?

Merck, Heibron and Beilstein all provide information on drugs that have
a significant presence in the market. Lesser-known homebake and analogues 
are usually not covered, and a search of Chemical Abstracts may not even
provide information. Because of the various techniques used to "refine" 
and "cut" the active ingredients, most illegal drugs are seldom 
sufficiently pure to match published data. The drugs are marketed on their
pharmacological and psychological activity, rather than chemical purity 
- similar to vitamin units of activity :-).  I suggest you start by reading
the various alt.drugs FAQs - they all list hardcopy references, and if they 
do not identify an information source, try posting to alt.drugs. 
  
13.5  Where are the synthesis instructions for illegal drugs?

By asking the question in sci.chem, you already have signalled your level 
of knowledge of illicit chemistry discussions on Usenet. You should be in 
alt.drugs.* hierarchy and perhaps other groups in section 13.1 :-).

For the short answer, refer to Merck, Heilbron or Beilstein, they will
provide references to the original synthesis papers. Note that large scale 
production techniques often use procedures that were developed later, and 
street procedures often are significantly different, usually due to 
financial, equipment, or chemical feedstock constraints.

For the long answers, see the "alt.drugs Clandestine Chemistry Primer/FAQ"
by Yogi Shan (yshan@bnr.ca), and visit some sites listed in the Network
Resources FAQ available in alt.drugs. For a fairly comprehensive overview,
( but no warranty implied for info available there ), you could start at:
http://hyperreal.com/drugs/

13.6  Should I post detailed recipes for illegal chemicals?

Well, if you do a lot of people will hate you. On the other hand many people 
will love you. Of course, most people won't care one way or another.  
Or maybe they'll just roll their eyes back, mumble something about 
"dissipated/mis-spent youth", and hit the "next" button.

Posting them to sci.chem means you will be attempting to teach grandmother 
how to suck eggs, most regulars of sci.chem *know* where to find the 
complete instructions, how to perform the synthesis, and have authorised 
access to all the equipment and chemicals. The readers of sci.chem are 
probably not your target audience, and may be a little annoyed that you had 
such a low opinion of their chemistry abilities. If you do not want a
lot of flames, try posting to the groups in section 13.1, they will probably
appreciate your contribution more, but will still flame you if it is wrong.

This is UseNet, do what you want as long as you think you can get away with 
it. And don't ever let anyone tell you that you can't. It's a truism on 
UseNet that whatever you do, someone's going to be mad at you.  For every 
anarchistic Free Spirit (TM), there's going to be at least one 
anal-retentive busy-body who has nothing better to do that feign outrage at 
something or other. Some idiot in Australia even had the nerve to flame me 
for posting my Clandestine Chemistry FAQ to sci.chem, and I think drugs are 
terrible, and said so.  So go figure.

The only caveat to this is that posting mis-information, or information
that you personally do not understand, is likely to result in a lot of
flames. If you attempt to post anonymously to sci.chem, it is likely
that you will encounter far more opposition than if you use your email
address. As with all of Usenet, posters who sign their names to posts
will be held accountable for the content, so posting obviously incorrect or
incomplete syntheses to a group where knowledgeable chemists hangout is more 
likely to harm your credibility. Your posts are unlikely to gain you further 
knowledge of the synthesis, because if you post incorrect details, readers 
will be pointed to the more accurate Clandestine Chemistry FAQ, and also
directed to the groups in section 13.1 to find the latest details.

In the late 1980s, early 1990s a poster began to post all the detailed
synthesis methods from PiKAL to sci.chem.  "PiKAL" is Alexander and Ann 
Shulgin's standard text " Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved [1]".  
From vague memory, the poster was just listing the recipes, and not entering 
into discussions or responding to questions or comments. There was the usual 
outrage, but I believe he had to stop because of copyright violation of the 
book he was posting - he could not demonstrate to his access provider that 
he had approval from the copyright holder :-) Shulgin has now made Part Two 
of PiKAL freely available, and copies are littered around the Internet, so 
check out the various alt.drugs FAQs for their location.

13.7  What newsgroups/mailing lists discuss explosives?

rec.pyrotechnics and alt.engr.explosives are two newsgroups that discuss 
explosives, much to the consternation of some subscribers to the former. 
The rec.pyrotechnics FAQ is excellent and is posted regularly to
rec.pyrotechnics, news.answers, and rec.answers.

There's an "Anarchist Cookbook FAQ" posted semi-regularly to rec.pyrotechnics
and alt.engr.explosives that tells you why the AC is lousy. See also: 
http://www.cwi.nl/cwi/people/Jack.Jansen/spunk/cookbook.html
    This review goes a little overboard: the mercury fulminate and picric
    acid recipes the he refers to are fine by my estimation.

See also [but no warranty implied for info available on]:
http://paradox1.denver.colorado.edu
http://www.wiretap.spies.com

13.8 What is the chemical structure of common explosives?
  
Exothermic oxidation-reduction reactions are the source of energy, and they
can be produced from mixtures of discrete fuels and oxidisers, or molecular
decompositions - such as from nitroglycerine. Propellants and explosives 
produce large volumes of gases, whereas pyrotechnics do not.
                                             Gas     Reaction  Ignition 
                                           Volume      Heat   Temperature 
                                           (cm3/g)   (MJ/KG)     (C)
Photoflash (30:40:30 Ba(NO3)2:Al:KClO4)      15       8.989      700  
TNT                                         710       4.560      310
  
Most explosives are organic compounds or mixtures that contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Metallic fuels ( eg aluminium ) may be
added to increase the heat of reaction. Industrial dynamites traditionally
used nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, and inorganic salts as sources of 
oxygen, but these have been replaced by formulations that use ammonium 
nitrate as the primary oxygen source. Note that the specific energy is 
usually lower than the combustion of common fuels in air because the fuels 
obtain their oxygen from air. 

Many explosive can either burn or detonate, usually depending on the 
type of initiation, confinement, and physical properties of the fuel.
When initiated, burning first occurs at an increasing rate during the first 
few microseconds as it creates a high velocity, high pressure shock wave 
that exothermally decomposes the explosive as it passes. The wave is
sustained by the transfer of energy from the reacted explosive to the 
unreacted explosive via shock compression. The reaction rate depends on
the rate of propagation of the shock wave, rather than the rate of heat
transfer - as occurs in burning.  

Explosives are usually classified into: 
Low Explosives or Propellants
   eg colloidal cellulose nitrate ( smokeless powder ), black powders, 
      gun and rocket propellants.
   - they are usually mixtures of chemical compounds that produce large 
     volumes of hign temperatures gases at controllable rates, and do not
     require atmospheric oxygen. Ammonium perchlorate and ammonium nitrate 
     are commonly used as oxidizers.
        
Initiating or Primary Explosives ( detonators )
   eg lead azide, mercury fulminate, diazodinitrophenol(DDNP).
   - they are used to initiate the next component of an explosive chain, and
     are usually dense, organometallic compounds.
   - these are sensitive materials and fairly dangerous to handle as they
     can be ignited by heat, shock and electrostatic energy.
                                            Lead     Mercury     DDNP
                                            Azide    Fulminate
Density             (g/cm3)                 4.0        4.2       1.60
Heat of Combustion  (MJ/KG)                 2.64       3.93     13.58
Heat of Detonation  (MJ/KG)                 1.54       1.79      3.43 
Gas Volume          (cm3/g at STP)           308        316       876

Detonation Velocity (m/s)                   5100       5400      6900

High or Secondary Explosives
There is a distinction between secondary and high, however many of the
common explosives are considered "secondary high explosives".
   eg cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT),
      cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX), ammonium picrate (AP).
"Secondary explosives" include trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (Tetryl),
nitrocellulose (NC) nitroglycerine (NG), nitromethane.  
High and secondary explosives require explosive shock to initiate their 
detonation, otherwise they would only burn if unconfined or unshocked. 

                               NG      TNT    AP    RDX    HMX   Tetryl
Density             (g/cm3)   1.59    1.65   1.72   1.85   1.90   1.70     
Heat of Combustion  (MJ/KG)   6.80   15.02  12.09   9.46   9.88  12.24
Heat of Detonation  (MJ/KG)   6.29    4.23   4.31   4.54   5.67   4.63  
Gas Volume          (cm3/g)    715     710    680    780    755    760       
Detonation Velocity (m/s)     7600    6940   7050   8570   9160   7920
Detonation Pressure (GPa)      -      18.9     -    33.8   39.3   26.2  

RDX and HMX are substantially desentisitized when mixed with TNT or coating 
with polymer/elastomer binders. Most RDX in the USA is converted into 
"Composition B" (59.5:39.5:1 RDX:TNT:Wax)
"A5" (98.5:1.5 RDX:Stearic Acid)  
"C4" (91:5.3:2.1:1.6  RDX:dioctyl sebacate:polyisobutylene:oil).
                                     Amatol                      AN
                                B     80/20   C4    AN   ANFO  Slurry
Density             (g/cm3)   1.72     -     1.64  1.72  0.93   1.40   
Heat of Combustion  (MJ/KG)  11.67    4.19    -    2.62   -      -
Heat of Detonation  (MJ/KG)   5.28    4.10   6.61  2.63  3.76   3.05
Gas Volume          (cm3/g)    -       860    -     980   -      -
Detonation Velocity (m/s)     7900    5200   8340  2700  4560   6050
Detonation Pressure (GPa)     29.5     -     25.7   1.1   6.0   10.4

Note that explosives usually have less potential energy than gasoline, but
it is the high rate of energy release that produces the blast pressure.   
TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,940m/s compared to 1,680m/s for the 
detonation of pentane in air, and the 0.34m/s stoichiometric flame speed of 
gasoline combustion in air.
 
Other than ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO), most common explosives are 
trinitrated organic compounds. Nitroglycerine (glyceryl nitrate), 
trinitrotoluene (TNT), picric acid, tetryl ( trinitrophenylmethylnitramine )
and C4 (plasticized RDX/Cyclonite) fall into this category. Refer to Merck 
or Kirk Othmer for chemical structures of common explosives.

ANFO was proposed in 1867, but it was the development of anticaking agents
in the 1950s that made ANFO suitable for rock-blasting. Typical commercial 
ANFO blasting agents consist of 94% ammonium nitrate prills (coated with an 
anticaking agent) and 6% fuel oil. They are reclassified as blasting 
explosives if the formulation is sentisized by the addition of high 
explosive. ANFO explosives are usually initiated by a high-explosive booster
such as formulation B. Maximum sensitivity to initiation occurs around 2-4%
fuel oil, with the presence of water decreasing sensitivity. The recent bomb 
in Oklahoma City (estimated 1800kg ANFO)[2], demonstrated the destructive 
capacity of ANFO explosives.
 
There were solubility problems using ANFO in wet drill holes, so aqueous-
based slurries were developed. These are usually thickened suspensions 
dispersed in a saturated salt solution that has been made water resistant
by the addition of hydrophilic colloids that inhibit water migration.
Ammonium nitrate-based explosives account for 97% of the US industrial
explosives.

The infamous nitrogen tri-iodide ( touch powder ) produced by the reaction
of ammonia with iodine, is not actually NI3 ( which has not been isolated ), 
but is an nitrogen iodide/ammonia complex with the structure NI3NH3.  
Refer to an old inorganic chemistry text, such as "The Chemical Elements
and their Compounds"[3], for further details and references.

13.9  How do I obtain chemical information on common explosives?

There is an excellent, well-referenced "Explosives and propellants" 
monograph in Kirk Othmer [4] and there is also the popular book "Explosives"
by Meyer [5]. "Chemistry of Powder and Explosives" by Davis [6], is also 
popular. Many of the relevant properties of fuels and explosives are found in 
an easily accessible Bureau of Mines report "Investigations of Fire and 
Explosion Accidents in the Chemical, Mining, and Fuel-Related Industries 
- A Manual" by J.M.Kuchta [7]. There is also the "Propellants, Explosives and
Pyrotechnics" journal. Merck lists most common, and many uncommon explosives, 
giving their structure, selected properties, and pointers to synthesis and 
more detailed information. Shreve and Kirk Othmer also discuss explosives
manufacture.

Tadeusz Urbanski wrote a massive four-volume reference set on explosives
"The Chemistry and Technology of Explosives" [8] that should be available
in any university science library (it's something like US$700 otherwise).
 
The "Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items", aka "PATR 2700" 
(Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report)[9], is a U.S. Army, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, NJ all-encompassing compilation (10 volumes) of 
explosives properties and chemistry.  Like Urbanski, it's also quite 
expensive.

13.10  What newsgroups/mailing lists discuss pyrotechnics?

rec.pyrotechnics is the "official" newsgroup for fireworks/pyrotechnics
discussions, though many have fled to the mailing lists due to the large 
numbers of juvenile "mad bomber" type posts that abound.

Mark A. Buda < buda@star.enet.dec.com >
  The original rec.pyro exile fireworks list.
  "Mad Bomber" posts forbidden.
The Pyro Mailing List is a "Real" pyrotechnic discussion group moderated by 
   a pyrotechnician.  No mad bombers.
   To subscribe apply to pml@vnet.net and follow the instructions. 
   One must supply the info and there are reasonable guidelines to follow.
Murr Rhame <murr@jazzmin.vnet.net> 
   Show-Fire entertainment pyrotechnics mailing list.
   "Mad Bomber" posts forbidden.
   To subscribe send the following one line message to listserv@vnet.net:
   subscribe show-fire name@your.address
Ken Harthun <omckenh@pipeline.com> 
   PyroTechniques, The Newsletter for Pyrotechnic Enthusiasts.  It is FREE 
   for the asking. Just email me with a request to be added to the list. 

See also:
   http://mercury.aichem.arizona.edu/~tip/pyro.html
   http://nickel.ucs.indiana.edu/~flinn/pyro/pyro.html
   http://fireworks.com/

------------------------------

Subject: 14. Academic Course Information
     
14.1  Where do I find information on US courses? 
14.2  Where do I find information on other nations' courses? 

------------------------------


