Subject: soc.culture.nordic FAQ, part 7/8 (Sweden)
Date: 3 Oct 1995 22:38:36 +0200
Summary: This posting is a part of the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
         file for the newsgroup soc.culture.nordic. Its purpose is to
         introduce new readers to the group, provide some general information
         about the Nordic countries (Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark and
         Iceland) and to cover some of the topics frequently discussed in 
         the group.

Archive-name: nordic-faq/sweden
Posting-Frequency: monthly
Version: 1.3
Last-modified: 01/10/95 (dd/mm/yy)


 A Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) -file for the newsgroup
 
 S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
 
 *** PART 7:  SWEDEN ***
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.1  Fact Sheet
 
 
        Name: Konungariket Sverige
        Telephone area code:  46
        Area: 449,964 km2 / 173,629 sq mi.
        Land boundaries: Norway, Finland
        Terrain: mostly flat or gently rolling lowlands; mountains in west;
                 numerous lakes in the inland; large archipelagos on the
                 eastern coast. 
        Highest mountain: Kebnekaise, 2,111 m (6,926 ft)
        Natural resources: iron ore, zinc, lead, copper, silver, timber,
                           hydropower
        Population: 8,818,000 (1994)
        Population density: 19 persons per sq km.
        Distribution: 83% urban, 17% rural. (1990)
        Life expectancy: males: 75, females: 81  (1991)
        Capital: Stockholm (pop. 672,187; metropolitan area 1,6 mill) (1990)
        Other major towns: Gothenburg (450,000), Malm (235,000),
                           Uppsala (160,000), Linkping (120,000),
                           Norrkping (120,000)
        Flag: a yellow Nordic cross on blue background.
        Type: constitutional monarchy
        Head of state: King Carl XVI Gustaf
        Languages: Swedish, Finnish, Sami
        Currency: krona (Swedish crown, SEK). For the current exchange
                  rate, see the URL  http://www.dna.lth.se/cgi-bin/rates
        Climate: temperate in south with cold winters; sub-arctic in north.
                 Average temp. in Stockholm: -5C - 1C in Feb., 14C - 22C in
                 July.
        Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (91%), (official state-religion), Roman 
                  Catholic (1.5%)
        Exports: machinery, motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood,
                 iron and steel products, chemicals, electronics
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.2  General information
 
 
<By: Ahrvid Engholm and me>
 
 
7.2.1  Geography, climate, vegetation
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  
Sweden occupies the Eastern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. It's a long
and rather narrow country, and the largest of the Nordic countries. It shares
a long border with Norway to the west and a shorter border with Finland in
the east; Denmark lies to the south across the Danish straits, over one of
which (resund) a huge bridge is being built. The Baltic Sea islands of
Gotland and Oland are integral parts of Sweden.
 
Northwestern Sweden is crossed by an ancient mountain chain; the remainder
of the north is a southeast-sloping plateau that rises to between 200 and 
500 m. South of the Norrland, forming the region of Svealand in central
Sweden and Gtaland farther south, is a varied region of plains and rift 
valleys. To the north of the highlands is the Central Swedish Depression, 
a down-faulted, lake-strewn lowland extending across the peninsula from
near Gteborg to east of Stockholm and Uppsala. To the south is Skne, a
low-lying, predominantly agricultural area.
 
Because of it's large area and latitudinal extent, Sweden has a number of 
climate regimes.  A cold, maritime climate dominates the country's west
coast. The northern two-thirds of the country has a continental climate
marked by severe winters.  The south central areas experience the long,
rather cold winters of the north, but they enjoy milder summers. The
mountain regions remain cool in summer.  In January temperatures average
-0.8C at Lund in the south), -2.8C at Stockholm, and -13.7C at Jokkmokk
north of the the Arctic Circle.  In July, the temperature variation is
lower because of the sun shines the longer the further north one goes:
15 C at Jokkmokk, 18 C at Stockholm, and only 17 C at Lund. Snow remains
on the ground for 40 days in southernmost Sweden, 100 days in the Stockholm
area, and 250 days in the northwest mountains.
 
Forest covers ca. 64% of the land area.  It consists of a summer-green
forest of beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees in the south, a mixed
forest of deciduous and coniferous trees in central Sweden, and a pre-
dominantly coniferous forest of mainly pines and spruce in the north.
Mountain birch and dwarf birch grow in colder upland areas, and tundra
covers the highest elevations.  Treeless moors (peat moss and marshland) 
cover more than 14% of all Sweden and as much as 40% in western areas of
the south and parts of Norrland. Bears, wolves and lynxes are now found
only in isolated woodlands, elk and deer are the common large animals
found elsewhere.
 
7.2.2  Economy
       ~~~~~~~
 
Sweden's most valuable assets are forests, mines (especially iron, but
copper has also been important), and in modern days hydroelectric power.
The metallurgic industry was started in the 16th and 17th centuries, and
through the ages Sweden has been known as one of the biggest iron exporters
in the world. A mechanical industry came with the industrial revolution
in the 19th Century, and Swedish products such as steel (Sandvik), paper
(SCA and others), cars (Volvo and Saab), ball bearings (SKF), electrical
equipment (ASEA, now ABB), telephone equipment (Ericsson) have become
well known.
 
7.2.3  Population
       ~~~~~~~~~~
 
The nation has its roots in the different kingdoms of the Viking Age, and
it may said to have been created when the King of the Svenonians (svearna)
assumed kingship over Goths (gtarna) as well in early middle ages. The
word Sweden ("Sverige" in Swedish) comes from the Svenonians (Svearna);
"Sverige" (Svea rike) means the realm of the Svenonians. The English form
of the name is probably derived from an old Germanic form, Svetheod, 
meaning the Swedish people.
 
Sweden has a relatively homogeneous population in ethnic stock, language,
and religion.  Because of the country's isolation relatively few non-Swedes
have intermixed with the Swedes before very recent times; the major groups
that have done so were Finns after 1580 and Walloons from present-day
Belgium, who settled in the Bergslagen area in the 1620s.  Groups that
maintain their distinct ethnic identity today include a substantial Finnish
minority, about 17,000 Sami, and recent immigrants from the Baltics
countries (in 1944); Hungary (in 1956); and Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey
(in the 1960s and '70s).  Since 1980 the largest group of immigrants has
consisted of Asian refugees.
 
In medieval times the Swedes also pushed north to colonize the province now 
known as Norrland, and over the Baltic Sea to conquer Finland. After the
era of the Kalmar Union between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, King Gustaf
Vasa created a more modern nation and made Sweden Lutheran. (Being able
to collect taxes from the Church and pay off national debts had a lot to 
do with it). In the 1630's Sweden joined the 30 Years War in Germany, and
aquired a status of a great power that lasted for about 100 years. Finland
was lost to Russia in 1809, and Sweden was in a personal union with Norway 
from 1814 to 1905.
 
7.2.4  Government
       ~~~~~~~~~~
 
Sweden hasn't been involved in a war since 1814, mainly due to a strong
policy of neutrality. This policy may shift as Sweden in January 1995
joined the European Union (but the future isn't very clear yet). Sweden
is a constitutonal Monarchy, but the monarch only acts as a ceremonial
head of state. A parliament (Riksdag) composed of 349 members is elected
every four years; it elects the government, passes laws, decides on taxes
and approves the state budget. The government holds office only as long
as they retain the support of a majority in the Riksdag.
 
The principal political parties are the Social Democratic party (led by
Ingvar Carlsson, the Center party, the Liberal party, the Christian
Democratic party, Ny Demokrati (New Democracy), and the Left (formerly the
Communist) party. Beginning in the 1930s, the Social Democrats were the 
dominant party, their position secured by economic prosperity and a broad
program of social welfare.  In the 1970s and 1980s, however, dissatisfaction
grew among the voters over high taxes and a lagging economy.  A conservative
coalition governed from 1976 to 1982, and another one under Carl Bildt
from 1991 to 1995, when Social Democrats under Carlsson again came to power.
 
There are old protodemocratic traditions in Sweden. In the middle ages the
kings were elected for life by representatives of the different "landskaps".
Even when the monarchy was made hereditary, the elected Riksdag retained
substantial power (though the King sometimes managed to push this power
back). These traditions played an important role as modern democracy 
gradually took over in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Two important 
political concepts emerge from Sweden: the ombudsman, a representative 
elected by the parliament to watch public administrations and with the 
power to prosecute, and the principle of official documents ("offentlighets-
principen"), which says that all state documents are a priori public
(unless declared secret under special laws).
 
7.2.5  Language and culture
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
Swedish is Germanic language, very closely related to Danish and Norwegian
(most Swedes can understand Danish and Norwegian), and somewhat less close 
to German, Dutch and English. There are many words borrowed from German, 
French (18th Century) and English (later). Leading cultural institutions
in Sweden are the Swedish Royal Opera; the Royal Dramatic Theater; the
National Touring Theater;  and the Swedish Academy, which awards the Nobel 
Prize for Literature. Literature is important in Swedish culture. Authors
like August Strindberg (1849-1912), Selma Lagerlf (1858-1940) and Astrid
Lindgren (1907-) are among the best known. There aren't many internationally
known Swedish composers, but Swedes have an ancient fondness for ballads
and trubadours (Carl Michael Bellman (1740-1795) is dearly loved by Swedes),
and in the later days Swedish pop and rock groups have reached international
fame (e.g ABBA, Army of Lovers, Roxette, Ace of Base, etc). 
 
Sweden also has a strong movie tradition, already from the days of the
silent movies, people such as Victor Sjstrm (1879-1960), known in 
the United States as Victor Seastrom, and Mauritz Stiller (1883-1928).
The director Ingmar Bergman (1918-) is world-famous and actors like
Ingrid Bergman (1915-1985?) and Greta Garbo (1905-1990?) have played in
several of the classics of the movie history.
 
Various sports are popular in Sweden, especially team sports like soccer
and ice hockey, but also for example tennis and table-tennis, outdoor 
activities like skiing and orienteering. Science and technology also plays 
an important role in the modern Swedish society. Private companies fund 
substantial research and development, and the government funds research 
at the universities. Examples are the JAS Gripen fighter project, and the 
information technology strategies put forth by the Bildt (1991-1994) 
government (now evaluated by the new Carlsson government).
 
Swedes work hard, pay high taxes, try to be open minded to other cultures 
(there is much immigration, which most people seem to accept), enjoy their 
traditions (around Christmas and Midsummer, for instance), but it is not 
actually true they are among the heaviest drinkers in the world. Statistics 
in the newspaper Svenska Dagbladet January 7 1995 shows Swedish alcohol 
consumtion to be on only 21st place among a selection of the industrialized 
nations, with 6,1 (100% pure) liters of alcohol/year (after most Western 
European countries and USA).
 
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.3  History
 
 
7.3.1  A chronology of important dates
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  
 
        800-1050 Viking age. It was a prosperous period. Swedish Vikings
                 traveled as fur and slave traders to Russia, Byzantium and
                 all the way down to the Arab caliphate at Baghdad. The
                 kingdom of 'Sveas' gets a leading position, its capital
                 is in (Gamla) Uppsala.
                 
        829      The German bishop Ansgar introduces Christianity to Sweden.
 
        1004     Olof Sktkonung was baptized, and made Christianity the
                 official religion of Sweden. Several pagan kings followed
                 him, though.
 
        11th ct. Sweden becomes Christian, and the country is united into a 
                 single kingdom when the Sveas had conquered the lands of
                 the Goths. Sweden conquers Finland through a series of
                 'crusades'.
 
        1164     The archbishopric of Sweden was instituted in Uppsala
        
        1250     Stockholm becomes the capital.
 
        1344     St. Birgitta (1303-1373), Sweden's most important medieval
                 saint, starts to write down her Heavenly Revelations and
                 decides to start a convent in Vadstena. The Brigittine Order
                 exists even today in many countries.
 
        1335     Slavery was abolished.
        
        1350     The first Swedish national replaced the local laws of
                 the 'landskaps'.
        
        1397-    The Nordic kingdoms are united as the 'Kalmar Union', led
        1521     by Denmark.
 
        1477     Uppsala university founded; the oldest university in the
                 Nordic countries.
 
        1520     When the Danish king Christian II is coronated in Stockholm,
                 he executes 100 Swedish noblemen who belong to the Sture-
                 party. This so called 'Stockholm bloodbath' causes a 
                 rebellion in Sweden which is led by Gustaf Vasa.
 
        1523     With the help of the Hansa-city of L.beck, Vasa defeats
                 the Danes and is elected king. The Kalmar Union ceases to
                 exist.
 
        1527     Reformation confirmed by the diet of Vsters. Sweden
                 becomes Lutheran and the Church is stripped of its riches.
 
        1560     Gustav Vasa's son, the mentally unstable Erik XIV, becomes
                 king, and in 1561 he starts Sweden's overseas conquests
                 by capturing northern Estonia from the Teutonic Knights.
 
        1568     Erik marries a common soldier's daughter Karin Mnsdotter
                 after unsuccesfully courting e.g Elizabeth I of England
                 and Mary Stuart of Scotland. In the same year, his brother
                 Johan, duke of Finland, turns against Erik imprisons him.
                 The duke becomes king Johan III and his brother, having been
                 sent from one prison to another for nine years, is poisoned
                 in 1577. 
 
        1590-95  Sweden fights a smaller war with Russia that ends with
                 the peace of Teusina and the recognition of Sweden's
                 right to northern Estonia.
 
        1594-99  The Catholic Sigismund, the son of Johan III and the Polish
                 duchess Katarina Jagellonica, becomes king, and Sweden enters
                 a personal union with Poland.
 
        1596-99  Civil war between Sigismund's uncle, duke Karl, and those
                 nobles who were loyal to king Sigismund. As a result, Sigis-
                 mund is kicked out, and the duke becomes king Karl IX.
 
        1617     Sweden gets Ingria and Kexholm province in the peace of
                 Stolbova with Russia. 
 
        1629     Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden in the peace of Altmark.
 
        1630-48  Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus) interferes in the Thirty
                 Years' War (1616-48) and Swedish troops fight in Russia, 
                 Poland, Austria and Germany. The "Lion of the North" achieves
                 legendary status as the defender of Protestants, he receives
                 crushing victories but his appetite for conquest grows too
                 large and eventually the king is killed in the battle
                 of L.tzen, 1632, after which the war fortunes waded back
                 and forth for the following 16 years. Gustav's daughter
                 Christina becomes queen; as she is still under age the
                 country is led until 1644 by Sweden's perhaps most famous
                 statesman Axel Oxenstierna. In the peace treaty of
                 Westphalia, 1648, Sweden wins the German territories
                 (Vorpommern, R.gen, Stettin, Wismar, and Bremen-Verden)
                 and becomes a major power.
 
        1638     Sweden's American colony, "New Sweden" (in present day
                 Delaware) is founded and settled by Swedish and Finnish
                 pioneers. The colony remains in Swedish hands only for 17
                 years, and is lost to the Dutch.
 
        1645     Sweden gets Gotland, sel (Saaremaa), Jmtland and Hrje-
                 dal from Denmark in the peace of Brmsebro.
 
        1654     Queen Christina, the daughter of Gustav II Adolf, converts
                 to Catholicism and gives up the crown. She spends the rest
                 of her life in Rome. Her reign had been one of favouring
                 arts, culture, science and philosophy, and the conversion
                 of the daughter of the greatest enemy of Catholicism was
                 a brilliant propaganda victory for the Catholic counter-
                 reformation. On the other hand, she had ruined Sweden's
                 economy by raising hundreds of new families into nobility
                 who were excempted from taxation. 
 
        1658     The peace treaty of Roskilde gives Sweden the Danish
                 prvinces of Skne, Blekinge, Halland and Bohusln.
 
        1700-21  The Great Northern War. Sweden is attacked by an alliance
                 of Denmark, Poland and Russia. The young king Karl XII
                 invades Denmark forcing it to accept a seperate peace. He
                 then turns towards Russia, lands in Estonia with 10 000
                 men and achieves a glorious victory in the battle of Narva
                 against a three times larger Russian army.
                 
                 With Russia and Denmark beaten, Karl XII ignores all
                 suggestions of negotiating peace and attacks Poland. This
                 gives Peter I of Russia time to raise a new army and to
                 start reconquering the Swedish territories. Karl XII
                 eventually succeeds in subduing Poland, and starts
                 a new campaign against Russia heading for Moscow. The 
                 troops that were planned to come to aid the main army,
                 however, never manage to show up, and Karl is forced to
                 turn south to Ukraine because of problems with supply.
                 There he suffers a crushing defeat in the battle of
                 Poltava 28.6.1709 and most of the Swedish army surrenders
                 while Karl XII manages to escape with a thousand men to
                 Turkey. He spent several years there trying to form a new
                 allianace against Russia.
 
        1714     With Finland occupied by Russians, most of the Baltic
                 provinces lost and Sweden itself threatened by a Russian
                 invasion, the estates and Riksdag decide that a peace
                 is necessary, but since the king was still in Turkey a
                 messenger was sent there to inform that Sweden would
                 accept any peace terms given unless the king soon returns
                 to Sweden. Karl XII reacts immediately, rides through the
                 whole Europe with only one man accompanying him in 15
                 days. After the king had returned, all talk of peace was
                 banned. In 1716 he still manages to raise an army of
                 40 000 men, and attacks Norway in 1718.
 
        1718     Karl XII gets killed while laying siege to Fredrikshald in
                 Norway. To this date, it isn't known whether the bullet
                 came from the Norwegian or Swedish side. Whether he was
                 assassinated or not, his death put a welcome end to the
                 Swedish campaigns and the exhausted nation could eventually
                 achieve peace.
 
        1720-21  Peace treaties with Hannover, Prussia, and Denmark leave
                 Sweden only Stralsund, R.gen and parts of Vorpommern of
                 its former "German territories". The most severe of the
                 peace treaties is, however, the one with Russia signed
                 in Nystad in 1721. Sweden loses all its Baltic territories,
                 the southeastern part of Finland, and ultimately its status 
                 as a major power.
 
        1718-72  The so called Age of Freedom. Political power shifts from
                 the king to the estates.
 
        1741-43  "The War of the Hats". The French-minded "Hat party"
                 advocating agressive foreign politics became a majority
                 in the Riksdag and declares war on Russia. The war goes
                 miserably and Finland is occupied by Russia. In the peace
                 treaty of Turku, Russia however agrees to gaining only
                 fairly minor territories in eastern Finland because Swedes
                 agree to having Russian-approved Adolf Fredrik to enter
                 the Swedish throne.
 
        1772     Gustav III performs a coup and restores absolute monarchy;
                 the beginning of the "Gustavian era". Gustav's rule is
                 authoritarian and freedom of speech is limited, but in the
                 spirit of "enlightened autocracy" he pushes through many
                 important reforms that the estates had been unable to decide
                 on during the Age of Freedom. Swedish economy strenghtens,
                 laws are made more humane, new towns and roads are built,
                 the navy is reformed and arts are favoured.
 
        1788-90  Gustav's war against Russia. Sweden attacks Russia hoping
                 to reconquer eastern parts of Finland and Ingria. The troops
                 are poorly motivated, the war goes badly, a rebellion
                 known as Anjala-alliance rises among the Finnish officers
                 and Gustav has to stop the Russian campaign. Meanwhile,
                 Denmark attacks Sweden, but finds England and Prussia
                 opposing all military actions in the Danish straits, and
                 is forced to accept a truce. In June 1789 the war in the
                 eastern front is continued, but no with no significant
                 advance on land and several defeats on sea. However, on
                 9.7.1790 in Svensksund on the Finnish coast, the Swedish
                 navy achieves a glorious victory in the largest naval battle 
                 ever fought on the Baltic sea. After this, Russia accepts
                 a peace offered by Sweden but the peace involves no ceding
                 of territories.
 
        1792     Gustav attends a masked ball in Stockholm's opera despite
                 the several warnings about conspirators planning an assas-
                 sination. Around midnight, he is mortally wounded by a
                 certain J.J.Anckarstrm, and dies a couple of weeks later.
                 Duke Charles becomes a regent while the young crown prince 
                 Gustav Adolf is under age.
 
        1808-09  The War of Finland. Russia had agreed in the treaty of Tilsit
                 to pressure Sweden to join the Napoleonic anti-British trade
                 blockade, but Sweden refuses to listen to the Russian ulti-
                 matums and scare-tactics and remains opposed to Napoleon.
                 Eventually, when all diplomatic means have failed, Russia
                 attacks Finland. Despite brief victories, the war goes
                 badly for Sweden and by the spring of 1809 the Finnish
                 troops had surrendered, the main army had retreated to
                 Sweden and in the peace treaty of Fredrikshamn the whole
                 of Finland was joined to Russia. Because of the disastrous
                 war Gustav IV Adolf loses power and a new constitution is
                 written that puts an end to Gustavian autocracy.
 
        1810     One of Napoleon's generals, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, is 
                 elected as the heir to throne. Despite this Sweden joins the
                 British-led anti-Napoleon alliance. In 1818, he becomes king 
                 Carl XIV Johan.
 
        1814-    In return for its anti-Napoleonic stance, Sweden receives
        1905     Norway in the treaty of Vienna, and two countries are united
                 in a personal union, with Sweden occupying a leading
                 position. 
 
        1831     The newspaper Aftonbladet is founded, important because of 
                 it's struggle to increase the freedom of the press. The king,
                 Karl XIV Johan, at the time had the right to retract 
                 permissions to publish newspapers. When Aftonbladet criti-
                 cizied the king, he retracted the publish rights - but the 
                 paper immediately reappeared as "The Second Aftonbladet", 
                 "The Third Aftonbladet" and all the way to the "28th Afton-
                 bladet".
 
        1842     A national public education system, "Folkskolan", is 
                 introduced.
 
        1850-90  About one million Swedes moved to America during this time,
                 but the emigration slowed after 1900 because of improved
                 conditions of living.
                   
        1866     The Riksdag is reformed. The system of the four estates is 
                 abandonded and a new system of two chambers is introduced. 
                 (The Riksdag becomes unicameral in 1971).
 
        1901     First Nobel Prize award
 
        20th ct. Sweden manages to stay out of both World Wars, achieves a high
                 standard of living and becomes a welfare state.
 
        1939-45  Sweden declares itself neutral at the eve of the war but
                 has to compromise on several occasions to avoid direct
                 conflict with Germany. Sweden continues to deliver iron
                 ore and other strategic goods to Nazi Germany and allows
                 the transfer of German soldiers through its territory.
                 At the same time, however, Sweden acts as a haven for
                 refugees coming from the neighbouring countries, provides
                 aid to Finland in its fight with the USSR and trains Danish
                 and Norwegian police troops that were used to restore order 
                 after the German surrender. At the close of the war Sweden 
                 returns the Baltic refugees to Stalin's Soviet Union (so
                 called 'Baltutlmningen').
 
        1986     Feb.28, the social democratic prime minister Olof Palme,
                 who had dominated Swedish politics in the 70's and 80's,
                 is assassinated while returning from movies. A political
                 heir of Tage Erlander (another influential Swedish prime
                 minister, in power 1946-69), he had an international
                 reputation as an architect of the Swedish welfare model
                 and an outspoken advocate of disarmament. He was the first
                 Swedish leader to be killed since king Gustav III. Despite
                 feverish and almost tragicomic investigations, the motive
                 and the killer still remain unknown.
                
        1994     Sweden held a referendum about joining the European Union 
                 in November 13th, and a "YES" result was achieved.
 
        1994     The 'Estonia' ferry disaster. A ferry enroute between
                 Tallin and Stockholm with over a thousand people
                 onboard sank into the icy Baltic; only ca. 130 were
                 saved. Of drowned, the vast majority were Swedes, and the
                 disaster shook the whole nation.                 
 
        1995     As of January 1st Sweden became a full member of the EU.
 
 
 [I'm a bit hazy on Sweden's post-1809 history. If you think something
 ought to be added/corrected just tell me. I'm sure the earlier history
 lacks something as well]
 
 
7.3.2  A list of Swedish monarchs
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
        ca 990          Erik (the victorious) 
        ca 1000         Olof Sktkonung, baptized as a Christian in 1008
        1019-50         Anund Jakob
        1050-60         Emund den gamle (the old) 
        ca. 1160        Stenkil 
        1066-80         Halsten 
        1080-1110       Inge the elder 
        1110-18         Filip
        1118-1120       Inge the younger 
        ca. 1130        Ragnvald
        1135-56         Sverker the elder
        1158-60         Erik IX den helige (St. Eric) 
        1160-67         Karl VII Sverkersson 
        1167-96         Knut Eriksson 
        1196-1208       Sverker Karlsson the younger
        1208-16         Erik X Knutsson 
        1216-22         Johan Sverkersson 
        1222-29         Erik XI Eriksson  
        1229-34         Knut Holmgersson den lnge (the long) 
        1234-49         Erik XI Eriksson lspe och halte (lisp and limp)
        1250-75         Valdemar Birgersson
        1275-90         Magnus Birgersson Laduls 
        1290-1318       Birger Magnusson, under age until 1298
        1319-64         Magnus Eriksson, under age until 1332.
        1363-89         Albrekt av Mecklenburg 
        1389-1412       Margareta (queen of the Kalmar Union)
        1412-34         Erik av Pommern (king of the Kalmar Union)
        1441-48         Kristoffer av Bayern (king of the Kalmar Union)
        1448-57         Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
        1457-64         Kristian I (king of the Kalmar Union)
        1464-70         Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
        1471-97         Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
        1497-1501       Hans (king of the Kalmar Union)
        1501-03         Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
        1504-11         Svante Nilsson Sture (regent of Sweden)
        1512-20         Sten Sture the younger (regent of Sweden)
        1520-21         Kristian II (king of the Kalmar Union)
        1523-60         Gustav I Vasa
        1560-68         Erik XIV 
        1568-92         Johan III 
        1594-99         Sigismund III Vasa
        1599-1611       Karl IX 
        1611-32         Gustav II Adolf 
        1632-54         Kristina, under age until 1644
        1654-60         Karl X Gustav 
        1660-97         Karl XI, under age until 1672
        1697-1718       Karl XII
        1719-20         Ulrika Eleonora
        1720-51         Fredrik I
        1751-71         Adolf Fredrik
        1771-92         Gustav III
        1792-1809       Gustav IV Adolf
        1809-18         Karl XIII
        1818-44         Karl XIV Johan
        1844-59         Oscar I
        1859-72         Karl XV
        1872-1907       Oscar II
        1907-50         Gustaf V
        1950-73         Gustaf VI
        1973-           Karl XVI Gustaf
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.4  Main tourist attractions
 
 
7.4.1  Stockholm area
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
       
 
 Stockholm was originally established (c. 1250) by Birger Jarl as a 
 defense outpost against the Baltic pirates on one of the channel islands
 that now make up Old Town. The city gained importance during the late
 Middle Ages as an exporter of metals, timber, and furs from its hinterland,
 but was still second after Uppsala in importance. Following the Stockholm
 Bloodbath and the subsequent overthrow of Danish rule in 1523, Stockholm
 became the center of the new Swedish kingdom. Under Gustav II Adolf
 (ruled 1611-32) Sweden became a major European power.  His daughter and
 successor Christina (ruled 1632-54) established Stockholm as an
 intellectual and cultural center.
 
 Stockholm is sometimes known as the Venice of the North. It is the
 cultural, educational, and industrial center of Sweden. The heart of the
 city is built on 13 small islands at the junction where Lake Mlaren joins
 the Baltic Sea. Remnants of medieval Stockholm survive on three small
 islands known as Gamla Stan (the Old Town). They are Stadsholmen (The
 City Island) , Riddarholmen (Knight Island), and Helgeandsholmen (The
 Island of the Holy Spirit). The islands are closely connected and form
 the "Staden mellan broarna", or "city between the bridges". 
 
 Stadsholmen has old gabled houses and narrow streets not found in other
 sections. Facing the water is the Royal Palace, which was completed in
 1760, and is open to tourists. Nearby is the Storkyrkan (cathedral), the
 oldest building of the city (although the exterior is baroque), which
 houses e.g the famous medieval sculpture of St. Georg and the Dragon by
 the German sculptor Berndt Notke.
 
 Cobblestone streets wind up from the palace to the old Stortorget, or Great
 Market, the site of the Bloodbath of 1520. Eighty-two Swedish noblemen were
 executed in the market by Danish King Christian II. Close to Stadsholmen
 is Riddarholmen, where many of the Swedish rulers have been buried in
 Riddarholmskyrkan. On the tiny Helgeandsholmen, or Island of the Holy
 Spirit, where the House of Parliament stands
 
 North of the Old Town are Norrmalm, the modern business and theater district,
 and stermalm, a resedential section. Sdermalm, a manufacturing center,
 is in the city's southern section, across the bridge leading from Old Town.
 The Town Hall, which is Stockholm's symbol, and most of the city government
 offices are on Kungsholmen, a large island west of Norrmalm. Stockholm is
 famous for its cleanliness and for its large number of parks and open 
 spaces. On Djurgarden (a peninsula reserved for parkland and a cultural
 center) is Skansen, an open-air museum.
 
 The University of Stockholm, founded in 1877 as a private institution,
 was taken over by the state in 1960 and is now the country's largest 
 university.  The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually in Stockholm, with
 the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize, which is presented in Oslo, Norway.
 
 Major museums include the National Museum (of art), the Moderna
 Museet (Museum of modern art), the Vasa Museum (where a magnificient,
 17th Century royal warship Vasa is on display; it sunk in the harbour
 on it's first journey in 1628 and was well preserved in the water for
 over 300 years until it was lifted in 1961. It's a must for every
 Stockholm visitor), the Historical Museum, the Nordic Museum, the Museum
 of Natural History (with Cosmonova omni theatre), the Museum of Naval
 History, the Skansen outdoor museum, the medieval museum, and the Royal
 Armoury (Livrustkammaren) where all sorts of fascinating artifacts
 from the history of the kingdom are on display, including crown jewels.
 
 In August each year we have the Stockholm Water Festival, an annual 
 cultural and entertainment event sponsored by the city council and local 
 business life. The one and a half week festival offers special exhibitions,
 concerts, shows, fireworks, an impromptu shopping mall in the Old Town
 with street restaurants, outdoor movie shows, activities for children,
 etc. The offcial guide of the festival each year lists more than 1 000
 festival events.
 
 The Stockholm archipelago with tens and tens of thousands of islands
 is very popular in the summer. You can take the white Waxholm boats to 
 the archipelago.  A popular area for summer houses.
 
 - Have a tour around Stockholm by sightseeing boat. Or see the city on a
 regular boat trip. In that case, note Skeppsholmen and Kastellholmen,
 formerly navy base. Then get the most condensed view of the old town.
 Further out, note Waldermarsudde, home of artist late Prince Eugen, now
 museum. Young artists will give concerts here summertime. Then a white
 building with towers, home of late Marcus Wallenberg. Finally two beautiful
 houses from baroque era on point Blockhusudden.
 
 - Drottningholm. Accessed by land or by boat. Home of the royal family.
 Theatre with advanced scene mechanism from 18th century, in use today. Park
 in the style of Versailles, with 'Kina slott', romantic building in Chinese
 style.
 
 - Open-air museum Skansen in Djurgrden should preferably be seen when
 all workshops are open which will not be until the end of August. At least
 some of them should however be open every Sunday. Skansen also has a Zoo.
 You can get there with the museum tram line leaving from Norrmalmstorg.
 
SUGGESTED WALKS OR BIKE RIDES AROUND STOCKHOLM
 
 - Along shore Norr Mlarstrand. Outdoor cafe. Then one will come to the
 City Hall. Enter the tower.
 - From Djurgrden eastwards along the shore to Blockhusudden. Bring a
 picnic basket early in the morning.
 - On the hills of Sdermalm, with red cottages dispersed among the stone
 houses. Fine views over the water.
 - Along the shores of Reimersholme. Then, on the way to bridge Vsterbron,
 pass by 'Lasse i parken' (cafe in a red cottage). Go over Vsterbron and
 again come to Norr Mlarstrand.
 - On Skeppsholmen and Kastellholmen. Museum of Eastern antiques. Youth
 hostel and outdoor cafe.
 
 There is no particular restaurant area in Stockholm. Stureplan and around
 however is somewhat of a meeting place. It is also close to water.
 In later years the south side (Sdermalm), especially around Medborgar-
 platsen, has emerged as an important area of restaurants and pubs. There
 are over a hundred of them within 5 minutes walking distance from Medbor-
 garplatsen.
 
 Plenty of choir concerts are given in the churches and the choirs are
 generally very good. 
 
 There are some places close to Stockholm which should be seen, if possible.
 - Gripsholm castle, accessed e.g. with s/s Mariefred on a one-day trip;
 oldest part was built in the 1380's. Interesting because it's different
 styles inside reflect different epochs.
 - Home and orangery of the famous botanist Carl von Linne in Uppsala.
 - Hammarby, east of Uppsala. Summer resort of Linne, used by him for
 lecturing.
 - sterbybruk, north of Uppsala. The pre-industrial factories called
 'bruk' are peculiar for Sweden. A 'bruk' was a complete community. They are
 dispersed throughout middle Sweden. sterbybruk is very well preserved.
 - Skokloster castle at lake Mlaren, from about the same time as
 man-of-war Vasa. Armoury collection.
 (Rent a car in order to visit the previous four items.)
 - The remains of Birka in lake Mlaren. Birka could be considered capital
 of Sweden during the Viking age. Best accessed by boat.
 
 SUGGESTED ONE-DAY ARCHIPELAGO TRIPS FROM STOCKHOLM
 
 - Sandhamn on island Sandn. Have beefsteak lunch onboard on the steamer.
 From the harbour, walk southwards to village Sandhamn. Then follow the
 southern shore of the island to point Trouville. Find a suitable way back
 to the village. Be careful to enter the right boat back. Avoid Saturdays
 and Sundays. 
 
 - Kymmend. Strindberg's Hems. Restricted area. Ask for permission at
 the police office.
 
 - Rdlga. Small formerly fishing village. Forest meadows and hardwood
 forest, very impressing that far out in the sea. It will however be at its
 best in early summer. The main island of this detached archipelago is
 rather small and will be walked around in one hour. Choose between
 Saturdays or Sundays.
 
 - Husar.
 
 If you have the time, stay over night somewhere. There are accommodations
 at several places. Buy a smoked fish if there are not any restaurants.
 Check restricted (military) areas on the map. Ticks is not a big problem,
 but ask for advice if you are uncertain.
 
 On a half-day trip from Stockholm one can go to Vaxholm. See the citadel
 (open until 16.00) with gunnery museum and minute exhibition about the
 Ytterby mine, known for ytterbium, yttrium, terbium, holmium, scandium,
 gadolinium and lanthanum. The mine itself may be visited but is hardly
 worth seeing and minerals may not be collected. Open air cafe in the
 citadel.
 
 Check this URL for more info on Stockholm in the WWW:
 
    http://www.sunet.se:80/stockholm/
 
 
7.4.2  Uppsala
       ~~~~~~~
 
 
The city of Uppsala, a major Swedish cultural center, lies about 70 km 
north of Stockholm and can easily be accessed by train. Uppsala has a his-
tory going well into the prehistoric era, it became the seat of the 
Swedish archbishop in 1164 and a royal residence in the next century,
although it later lost much of its status and the king moved to Stockholm.
The most important sight is Uppsala cathedral (domkyrkan), Sweden's largest
medieval church, and a national sanctuary where e.g the king Gustav Vasa,
philosopher Emmanuel Swedenborg and the botanist Carl von Linn (Linnaeus)
are buried. The University of Uppsala (1477) is Sweden's oldest institution
of higher learning, and it's main building Gustavianum (1623) houses a
couple of museums.  Uppsala castle overlooks the city from a high hill,
and beside it is the symbol of the city, Gunillaklockan (Gunilla's clock),
which is played daily 6 a.m and 9 p.m.  Uppland's museum is located in
an old mill by the river Fyrisn. Linn's home museum (Linns Hammarby)
with a garden dedicated to him are also in the city.
 
Gamla Uppsala (Old Uppsala), now a suburb five kilometers to the north of
the modern city, was the religious and political capital of the Sveas in
the Viking age. The three high burial mounds (kungshgarna) from the 6th
century belong, according to tradition, to the kings Aun, Adils and Egil;
finds from their excavations are displayed in Stockholm in the Historical
Museum (Historiska Museet). In a 1164 a church was built on the site of
the famous old pagan temple of which nothing remains, as a symbol of
the victory of Christianity in Sweden -- it was the seat of the archbishop
until 13th century when a new cathedral was finished. The restaurant
Odinsborg, built in "viking style", serves mead (mjd).
 
 
7.4.3  Malm
       ~~~~~
 
Located in the southern tip of Sweden, 26 km across the sea (resund)
from Copenhagen, Malm is one of Sweden's largest cities. It was chartered
as a city during the 13th century, at which time the region belonged to
Denmark.  In 1658 it passed to Sweden.  Originally, Malm's harbor was
poor, and the city served mainly as a herring market until 1775, when the
port facilities were improved.  After 1800, Malm began to develop as an
industrial city.
 
The center of Malm is Stortorget square, by which are located the
governor's house (Residenset, 1720), the City Hall (Rdhuset, 1546) and
the statue of Karl X Gustav, conqueror of Skne. St Peter's Church
(S:t Petri, 1319), with a nicely sculptured interior and a 88m high green
spire is also in the center. The castle Malmhus was first built 1434,
and rebuilt 1537-42; now it houses a museum of archaology, history,
natural history and art. The Small Square (Lilla Torg) is one of the most
beautiful in the country, with it's houses from the 17th and 18th
centuries. Other sights include the Technical Museum, Charlotte Weibull's
House, the City Theatre, the Arts Hall, and the old Market Hall. In the
summer, you may want to visit the beach Ribersborgbadet.
 
 
7.4.4  Gteborg 
       ~~~~~~~~
 
 
Gteborg (Gothenburg), founded in 1621 by Gustav II Afolf on the site of
an earlier settlement, is Sweden's second largest city and chief seaport.
It prospered during especially during the Napoleonic Wars, when Gteborg
remained open while many other European ports were under the anti-British
trade blockade. Located where the Gta river empties into the Danish 
straits, it was designed on Netherlandic fashion, with canals and bridges.
The Gta Gota Canal built in the 19th century runs between Stockholm and
Stockholm, and is a very scenic route indeed. 
 
In the center of the city are Gustav Adolf's square, by which the old
Stock Exchange is located. The City Hall was designed by Nicholas Tessin
the younger in 1672. The stra Hamngatan and Kungsportavenyn streets lead
to Gtaplatsen (Gta Square), in the center of which is the statue of
Poseidon by Carl Milles; the city theatre, concert hall and art musem
(Nordic, French and Dutch art from 19th and 20th centuries) are located
by the square. Ostindiska Huset (the house of the East-Indian Company),
built 1750, houses historical, archaeological and ethnological collections.
The city museum is housed in the oldest house of the city, Kronhuset, from
the year 1653. Kronan is a fortress with a war museum. Off the city lies
lvsborgs Festning (vsborg Fortress), 1670, which can be accessed by boat.
The old parts of the city contain the also the cathedral (1633), Kristine
Church (1648), the law courts (1672), and the opera house (1859). There's
a university (1891) and Chalmers Technical University. The sports
stadium Ullevi, with seats for 52,000 people, is Sweden's biggest; the
indoors stadium Scandinavium houses 14,000. Two bridges go over the wide
Gta River, Gtalvbron and the newer lvborgsbron.
 
Check this URL for more info:
 
    http://www.wca95.org:80/tourist/
 
 
7.4.5  Gotland
       ~~~~~~~
 
 
 Gotland is the the largest island (3,023 km2) in the Baltic Sea and has
 a population of 56,383 (1989), with the town of Visby as the administrative
 center. It lies 80 km off the Swedish coast and can be accessed by daily
 boats from the mainland. Close to it are a couple of smalle islands, Frn,
 Gotska Sandn and Karls. Gotland is a low limestone plateau with a
 temperate, sunny climate. It developed rather early in prehistory etensive
 trade contacts with the people of northern Europe, and had a very dis-
 tinctive culture, represented by e.g the numerous, beautiful picture
 stones erected all over the island in the 6th and 7th centuries. By the
 12th century Visby was an important, independent town and a member of the
 Hanseatic League. The Danish king Valdemar Atterdag brutally conquered it
 in 1361, and after that, control of Gotland was disputed by several nations.
 Trade routes shifted, however, and by the time Sweden gained lasting control
 in 1645, it had lost much of its former importance and was impoverished.
 
 Nowadays the island is a very popular summer destination, rich in sights
 (including lots of medieval churches) and very good for a cycling holiday.
 It has a beautiful, characteristic nature, and the old ring wall around
 the medieval city of Visby, no doubt one of the most beautiful towns in
 Scandinavia, is almost totally intact. An important event is the Medieval
 Week (medeltidsveckan) arranged in Visby in August every year, with 
 knights, Medieval markets, etc. The Forntidssalen museum in Visby displays
 the fascinating prehistory of Gotland, including picture stones and
 some of the rich Viking age treasures that are constantly found in the
 island (metal detectors are banned in Gotland!)  Other absolute "musts"
 in and around Gotland include the caves at Lummelunda, the rauk fields
 (peculiar limestone formations on the coasts) and Stora Karls (an island
 off the south-west of Gotland)
 
7.4.6  The rest of Sweden
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
       
 
 In the north, people appreciate the beauty of the mountain range ('fjll-
 vrlden'), where you can hike, fish, pick berries, ski (in the winter) or
 see the midnight sun (in the summer and far north). There are several big
 national parks here.
 
 The province of Dalarna is the "home" of the traditional Midsummer
 celebrations, where people dance around the Midsummer poles in traditional
 folk dresses.
 
 A popular route is Gta Kanal, on which you can go on boat from
 Norrkping to Gothenburg and at the same time see a cross section of
 the mid-Sweden country side.
 
 Skne (Scania) is the Swedish province that gives an almost Central
 European impression. The landscape is very flat and much of it is farmed.
 You'll find beautiful beech woods here and everywhere you see the traditional
 black and white houses ('korsvirkeshus'). Many like to rent or own summer
 houses on the Scanian country side. For more info on Scania, see 7.6.
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.5  Swedish literature, language, etc.
 
 
 
7.5.1  Swedish literature
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
       
 
Swedish writing dates back to 11th-century runic inscriptions, but actual
literature originated in the Catholic Middle Ages. Saint Birgitta (1303-1373)
wrote her Revelations, which became internationally known, in Latin. Another
important work from the 14th century is the Erikskrnikan, which recounts
historical events in poetic form. Most medieval Swedish writings served
nonliterary purposes, with the exception of the folk ballads.
 
Gustav Vasa's reformation of the church contributed to a cultural decline
in the 16th century. However, of vital importance to the development of the
Swedish language were Olaus Petri's Bible translations of 1526 and 1541.
Another important 16th century work, although in Latin, was Olaus Magnus's
Historia De Gentibus Septentrionalibus (History of the Nordic Peoples,
1523). During this period there also appeared Sweden's first lyric poet,
Lars Wivallius. Another significant early poet is Georg Stiernhelm in
the 1600's.
 
The 18th century, a period of enlightenment, was dominated by prose. Only
toward the close of the century, during the reign of Gustaf III, did other
genres emerge in the wake of French cultural influence. Noteworthy is Carl
Michael Belmman's rococo ballads. Emmanuel Swedenborg's mystical visions
influenced many authors and thinkers around Europe and prompted the Sweden-
borgian religion that still exists.
 
Erik Johan Stagnelius's Neoplatonism, Esaias Tegner's and Erik Gustaf
Geijer's glorification of the nation's past, and Abraham Viktor Rydberg's
idealistic liberalism all reflect the philosophical orientation of Swedish 
19th-century romanticism. Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, initially a mystic
and romantic, came later to herald new trends of realism in prose works
characterized by social awareness. The Finland-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig
Runeberg, with his heroic and romantic poetry, had enormous influence in
the Swedish speaking literary circles. But the most important figure of
the century was, however, August Strindberg (1849-1912), Sweden's greatest
writer and the father of modern Swedish drama and fiction. Moving in his
later plays from naturalism to dreamlike symbolism, Strindberg
foreshadowed expressionism. A novelist and playwright, he defied social
convention by writing dramas of sexual conflict and psychological torment,
drawn largely from his personal life.  His plays are now esteemed as 
classics of the modern stage. Important works include e.g the Red Room
(Rda Rummet), Olaus Petri and Inferno.
 
The socially opinionated prose writers of the 1880s were succeeded by a
new wave of romantics, who preferred verse and emphasized the past (Selma
Lagerlf) and the countryside (Erik Axel Karlfeldt). About 1900, Hjalmar 
Sderberg published exquisite short stories set in the streets of
Stockholm; but the novelists of the next decade favored small-town
Sweden. Modernism was introduced in the 1920s by the Finno-Swedish poets
Edith Sdergran, Gunnar Bjrling, and Elmer Diktonius, and it was affirmed
in Pr Lagerqvist's innovative dramas and Gunnar Ekelf's surrealistic
poetry. A new social class of self-educated country writers entered
Sweden's literary world in the 1930s, among them the 1974 Nobel laureates
Harry Martinson and Eyvind Johnson.
 
Sweden managed to avoid the world wars, but its literature from the 1940s
(Erik Lindegren, Karl Vennberg) reflects the general postwar depression. The
feeling ofpessimism and guilt worsened during the following decades because
of the Vietnam War and Third World problems. An intense questioning of 
literature's social function and a mistrust of language found many
literary expressions -- from "new simplicity" and "concreteness" in poetry,
to documentaries in prose, but the stories of Astrid Lindgren stand out
with their delighting humor and humanity. Swedish literature of the end
of the 1970s was characterized by a new trust in the word and a new delight 
in traditional fictio writing.
 
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see
the collection of Project Runeberg:
 
  World Wide Web       http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/
  Gopher               gopher://gopher.lysator.liu.se/project-runeberg
  FTP                  ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg
 
 
7.5.2  Books for learning Swedish
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
       
 
 Holmes, Philip and Serin, Gunilla: "Colloquial Swedish,"
 New York: Routledge, 1990, ISBN 0-415-02803-5. Cassette available
 
 Beite, Ann-Mari, Englund, Gertrud, Higelin, Siv & Hildeman, Nils-Gustav:
 Basic Swedish Grammar, 1963
 
 Hildeman, et al: Learn Swedish, Swedish Reader for Beginners, 1959
 
 All Almqvist & Wiksell: Practice Swedish, Exercises in the Swedish
 Language, 1957
 
 Nyborg, Roger & Pettersson, Nils-Owe: Svenska Utifrn, Lrobok i svenska,
 Svenska Institutet, 1991  ISBN 91-520-0268-3
 
 McClean, R.J: Teach Yourself Swedish, London, The English Universities
 Press, 1947. Newer reprint available.
 
 The language book that is used at UCLA and UC Berkeley is Nybrjarsvenska
 by Gransson and Lindholm.  It is published by Kursverksamhetens frlag,
 and can be bought e.g. at the the UCLA Student Store or Associated Students
 of UC (the Cal store). These books are written entirely in Swedish as they
 were meant to be for immigrants to Sweden of many different nationalities.
 It forces you to learn Swedish the same way you learned your mother
 tongue. It is a fairly entertaining book with nice illustrations.  It
 follows the activities of the denizens of an apartment building in Lund.
 On the tape, you get to hear different accents and modes of speech so that
 you train your ear for hearing more than just "announcer's Swedish".
 
In French:
 
 _Le suedois sans peine - svenska p ltt stt_
 
 Part I and II, ed. ASSIMIL, 1986.  Easily found in any bookshop. These
 two books are a sort of small FAQ about Sverige : *skl*,  herrings and
 bier, Americans with Swedish backgrounds, etc. Two sets of cassettes can
 be bought with the books.
 
 
------------------------------ 
 
Subject: 7.6  Scania  
 
 
<This section by Malte Lewan>  
 
 
7.6.1  Skne and Skneland
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   
Lat: Scania, Eng: Scania, Ger: die Schonen, Fr: la Scanie
 
"Skne" is old Danish/Scanian and means "the dangerous beach". It's not
possible for any modern speaker to see that now, just by looking at the
word.
 
Skne is the most southern of the provinces in Sweden. Together with
Blekinge, Halland and Danish Bornholm, it has it's own history while it
was an integral part of Denmark all the years before 1658 except 1332-
1360 when Denmark had no king and was in chaos. The four provinces
are together called "Skneland" in Swedish or "Sknelandene" in Danish.
In latin it was "Scania". After 1658, Bornholm continued to be Danish
while the other provinces became Swedish.
 
"Scania" is used as representing "Skneland" in the text below but
not in a strict sense. Sometimes the meaning might be closer to the
province of Skne. And Bornholm will in this use often not be included.
When emphasizing that it is only the southern province that is referred
to, "Skne" is used, when emphasizing that all provinces are referred
to, "Skneland" will be used.
 
 
7.6.2  The flag
       ~~~~~~~~
  
The Scanian flag is read with yellow ribbons and is more square than
both the Danish and Swedish ones. The measurements are based on the
_old_ (1748-1926) Danish measures for its flag. They are 3-1-4.5 in
length and 3-1-3 in height.
 
The flag is most likely (though not proved) from the archbishop in Lund
Andreas Sunesen (1201-1228) who then was archbishop for all of Norden.
(But the country diocese ("landestiftet") where the Scanian law was in
force was Skneland). He got it as a crusader in Latvia and a stay in
Riga. The fact that the flag is like a Danish-Swedish combination with
what could have been borrowed colors from these flags is a coincidence.
The Swedish flag is younger.
 
The Scanian flag itself (though other yellow-red symbols existed) was
probably pretty much forgotten until Mathias and Martin Weibull
"reinvented" it around the end of the last century. First, it was used
very sparingly but the use has grown and does so even today. But only
outside one of the Scanian townhalls, in Ystad, is the Scanian flag
flying so far. It is more used by the people, depending on area in
Scania. The Swedish flag is still more common.
 
As late as in March 1992, the flag was registered in the Scandinavian
Roll of Armor. At the same time, the Scanian coat of arms was
registered: a golden panther on red background with hind legs like a
lion and front legs like an eagle . The day of the Scanian flag is the
third Sunday in July.
 
 
7.6.3  Some Scanian history
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  
An event that was in people's minds for a long while was that in 1612,
Gustav II Adolf's troops killed people in 24 congreations in Scania
and in the 1660's, the Scanian rebels - the "snapphanar", a well-known
word even today - were pierced and were put up and made an example of 
along the Scanian country roads.
 
A certain level of self-governing remained until 1720 but then ceased to
exist. The last time there was any fighting about the status of Scania
was in 1811 in Klaagerup outside Malm. Peasants stood up to get rid of
the Swedish rulers but lost.
 
7.6.4  International status of Scania
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
  
Scania is a member of the national minority organisations FUEV
(Foederalistische Union Europaeischer Volksgruppen) which is located in
Flensburg, Germany. Only regions with their own language, clearly
defined border and a history to go back to, are accepted in FUEV. 
 
It is also a recent member of UNPO (Unrepresented Nations and Peoples
Organisation). UNPO is the alternative for minorities of the world which
are for example not represented in the UN. Before the entrance into the
organisation, UNPO was told by Swedish authorities that the Scanians
have been totally assimilated into the Swedish culture but was later
convinced by the Scanian "Stiftelsen Sknsk Framtid" that that was not
the case. UNPO is located in Haag, Netherlands.
 
7.6.5  Language
       ~~~~~~~~
 
Most people today agree that the language spoken today is Swedish but
there are a few old local words still in use. For example:
 
pg = boy (Sw: pojke)
rullebr = wheelbarrow (Sw: skottkrra)
mlla = mill (Sw: kvarn)
hutta = throw (Sw: kasta)
 
The Skne accent is characterized by the r's that are made using the
root of the tongue in the "French way" as well as lots of diphthongs
which standard Swedish lacks entirerly.
 
There are no original ethnic minorities living in Scania but there are
a few tens of thousand of Danes that have moved in after World War II.
Some are living in Landskrona and others have houses in Northern Skne.
 
7.6.6  Miscellaneous
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
The populations of the four provinces are today:
 
Skne: 1 100 000
Halland: 250 000
Blekinge: 150 000
Bornholm: 50 000
 
The big cities in Skne are
 
Malm: 250 000
Lund: 90 000
Helsingborg: 110 000
Kristianstad: 70 000
 
The biggest newspaper is "Sydsvenska Dagbladet" that has its base in
Malm but covers south western Skne equally well. It is independently
liberal. In the same area, there are "Arbetet" and "Sknska Dagbladet".
 
Lund is the only university in Scania. Other schools for higher
education in the same university area of southern Sweden are in
Vxj, Kalmar, Karlskrona/Ronneby, Kristianstad and Halmstad. There
are also quite big university independent schools in Malm, and Lund
University holds some courses in Helsingborg and Jnkping as well.
 
There are ferries between Copenhagen and Malm, Helsingborg-Helsingr,
Landskrona-Tuborg (close to Copenhagen) and of course to the islands Ven
and Bornholm. There are also ones to Germany (Trevem.nde and Sassnitz)
and Poland and sometimes to Lithuania. A few other ones exist too.
 
 
7.6.7  The bridge
       ~~~~~~~~~~
 
A bridge will be built between a point just south of Malm and the
airport of Copenhagen which is the biggest in northern Europe. The
bridge will be 16.5 km long and will carry cars as well as trains. The
current regional trains in Skne and in Sjlland (the island on which
Copenhagen lies) will be connected. It will take 28 min to go from
Copenhagen to Malm and 41 min to go to Lund. The university town of
Roskilde will be on the same connection (26 min from Copenhagen).
 
The bridge is supposed to be finished 1999, on June 27. It will be
financed by the cars who'll pay a few hundred SEK for a single trip,
just below the prices of today's ferries. Train passengers will only pay
the normal price of 50 SEK in today's money.
 
The bridge has been debated a lot because there have been worries about
the environmental effects. The flow of water between the Baltic Sea and
the North Sea is one of the problems since it could be affected. The
current solution is supposed to make sure there is no change in this
water transportation.
 
 
7.6.8  Plans for a region
       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
There is a lot of talk today in all kinds of sectors in Skne public
life about the prospect of a united region together with Sjaelland and
Copenhagen. That's a goal every local politician seems to acknowledge.
There are ideas about common transportation cards, a common tv-channel,
all kinds of cooperations in science, sports etc, a common labor market,
and even common Olympic Games in the year of 2008. Skne will be a
part of Copenhagen's arrangements as cultural capital of Europe in 1996.
 
The bridge has been considered important to achieve a working united
region and so has membership in the EU which could bring a common
currency, an abolition of customs controls, common regional EU financed
funds etc. The public opinion is the most favorable towards the EU in
all of Sweden.
 
Scanian regionalism is also considered getting a chance to flourish with
the EU Commitee of Regions in which the member states regions will have
representatives. Two Swedish representatives have already got
observatory status and happen to both be Scanians. In the case of full
membership, Sweden will have 12 representatives.
 
There is also a discontent with the centralisation of a lot of cultural,
and administrative activities around the capital Stockholm. For example
has there been a cultural research that showed that Stockholm gets six
times higher cultural subsidies than Malm per inhabitant. The
editorial offices of national radio- and tv-stations are usually located
in Stockholm which gives a Stockholm perspective in programs. Much more
is mentioned.
 
Sweden is supposed to get a new division into regions in the next years.
For the moment there are 24 smaller administrative provinces dating back
to the 1630's and in the future, there might be three to nine regions.
What is discussed now is which areas will belong together and many
different alternatives have come up. In most of them, Skneland is
broken apart and Skne itself will be one region. Especially Halland is
a problem on most maps since at least the municipalties don't seem to
feel having any special bonds to Skne anymore but Halland is not
naturally fitting into any other regions either. One solution is to
divide it into one northern and one southern part and let the southern
part belong to the Skne region. The status of Blekinge is more often
put into the Skne region but mostly to a northern region as well.
 
What seems to be most important to local Skne politicians about the
future Scanian region is:
 
1. The existence of a regional parliament to take care of issues
involving both the administrative provinces that compose Skne, for
example transportation issues: buses and trains
b. Many feel this parliament should be elected directly by the people
and not elected by the municipality assemblies.
 
2. That the new organisation does away with all other existing
structures and replaces them, for example to take care of the medical
service. The responsibility is then focused to one point. The nightmare
would be to have yet another half powerless joint body with only few
areas with authority. The difficulty for the ordinary citizen to grasp
the procedures in the mix of organisations there is today has been
called undemocratic. There is also twice done work in the different
organisations and it's a difficult environment for new initiatives.
 
3. The power of taxation.
 
Sources: "Sknelands flagga", Sven-Olle R Olsson, 1993
         Newspaper articles from "Sydsvenska Dagbladet", 1992-
         Brochures by SVEDAB (Svensk-Danska Brofrbindelsen AB), 93-94
 
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