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T136
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^LECIONO 8.
-
.
-: RIDI to laugh    DORMI to sleep    DUM during, while
-
-There are two very useful suffixes that either magnify or diminish the mean-
-ing of the root word. The suffix -EG- magnifies. Thus, DOMEGO is not a mere
-house, but a mansion. DEZIREGI is more than just to desire; it is to crave,
-to covet intensely. The suffix -ET- diminishes. DORMETI means "to nap",
-which is, after all, a "little sleep".
-
-Translate: "They guffawed while I sipped tea."
.
>Ili ridegis dum mi trinketis teon.
-
-: MORTA     dead            FORTA     strong
-
-There is a category of correlatives that pertain to reasons. KIAL means "for
-what reason", or "why". TIAL means "for that reason", or "therefore". IAL
-means "for some reason" and NENIAL means "for no reason". dIAL is somewhat
-rare, but perfectly legitimate. It means "for every reason".
-
-Please translate: "Why did he kill that weak person?"
.
>Kial li mortigis tiun malfortulon?
-
-: MONO      money           BEZONI    to need
-: POR       for             FERIO     vacation, holiday
-
-Another category of correlatives has to do with amounts. Thus, KIOM means
-"how much", TIOM means "that much" (or "so much"), IOM means "some amount"
-and is widely used to mean "rather" or "somewhat". NENIOM means "no amount"
-and dIOM means "every amount", but these latter are fairly uncommon.
-When speaking of amounts OF something, use the preposition DA, which means
-"of", but strictly in the sense of measure. Don't confuse it with DE. The
-expression dAMBRO DE INFANOJ means "children's room". dAMBRO DA INFANOJ
-means "roomful of children". Since DA is a preposition, you should not use
-the accusative ending on the noun that follows it. Example:
<Kiom da kafo vi deziras?
-
-Translate: "How much money did you need for that kind of a vacation?"
.
>Kiom da mono vi bezonis por tia ferio?
-
-: PAGI      to pay          HODIA    today            LIBRO     book
-
-Two additional suffixes help to convey the concepts of worthiness and
-obligatoriness. First, -IND- means that the root concept is worthwhile.
-Thus, LEGINDA LIBRO means "a book worth reading". VIDINDA FILMO is "a film
-worth seeing", and so forth. Like most other suffixes, -IND- can be used as
-a free-standing word. Thus TIO NE INDAS means "That isn't worthwhile." The
-suffix -END- carries the meaning of necessity, connected with the root
-concept. PAGENDA SUMO is "a sum that must be paid". LEGENDA LIBRO is "a book
-that must be read. There is often no single-word English translation for
-expressions that use these suffixes.
-
-Translate: "Today the coffee is not worth drinking."
.
>Hodia la kafo ne estas trinkinda.
-
-: LERTA     clever          KOSTI     to cost
-: VINO      wine            BIERO     beer
-
-There is a frequently used construction in Esperanto that is sometimes
-called the "T-K construction". It involves using the TI- form of a
-correlative followed by its KI- form.
-An example is: LI NE ESTAS TIEL LERTA KIEL I ESTAS. Literally, this says
-"He is not so clever how she is," but more idiomatically, it says "He is not
-AS clever AS she is."
-
-Translate: "The beer doesn't cost as much as the wine."
.
>La biero ne kostas tiom kiom la vino [kostas].
-
-: VENKI     to defeat       LUKTI     to wrestle
-
-The suffix -EBL- is something like the English "-able", but more precise. It
-indicates possibility. So, just as there is the English "drinkable", there
-is the Esperanto TRINKEBLA.
-The simple adjective EBLA, of course, means "possible", while EBLE means
-"possibly, perhaps, maybe".
-
-Translate: "That wrestler is not beatable."
.
>Tiu luktisto ne estas venkebla.
-
-: KONSTRUI  to build        ALTA      tall, high      VIZITI    to visit
-
-Generally, when you take a word that is usually used as a verb and add -O to
-it to form a noun, what you end up with is a word that refers to an instance
-of the verb in question. For example, AGI means "to act", so AGO is "an act
-or action".
-Occasionally, however, what you want to talk about is not an instance of the
-the verb, but a concrete outcome of it. Thus, MANzI is "to eat", and MANzO
-is "meal" (an "eating"), but MANzAO is "food". The suffix -A- is used
-to refer to concrete particulars connected with the root word.
-
-Translate: "That tall building is worth visiting."
.
>Tiu alta konstruao estas vizitinda.
-
-: LINGVO    language        PERFEKTA  perfect
-
-The last category of correlatives to be considered has to do with
-possession. Normally in Esperanto, possession is expressed by the
-preposition DE, for Thus, LA LIBRO DE MARKO means "Mark's book".
-Nevertheless, Zamenhof chose to favor compactness of expression for certain
-general categories of possession. So, KIES means "whose"; IES means
-"somebody's"; dIES means "everybody's"; NENIES means "everybody's". TIES
-literally means "that one's", and it is often used in cases where in English
-we might say "the latter's".
-
-Translate: "Nobody's language is perfect."
.
>Nenies lingvo estas perfekta.
-
-In English, we use a lot of compound tenses. That is, we say things like "I
-am eating" instead of "I eat" or "I have walked" instead of "I walked". The
-words "eating" and "walked" in these sentences function as what grammarians
-call participles. They are a special form of the verb. As already mentioned,
-Esperantists prefer to use simple verb forms. But sometimes the meaning is
-simple not clear from context, and a participle is needed. There are three
-active participles, to talk about what the subject of the sentence is doing:
-a present, past, and future participle. They are formed by the verb endings
--ANT- (present), -INT- (past), and -ONT- (future). They may take noun,
-adjective or adverb endings.
-So, as ESPERI means "to hope", the Esperanto word for "one-who-is-hoping" is
<esperanto.
-In fact this is where the name of the language comes from. Originally it was
-Zamenhof's pseudonym.
-
-: FALI      to fall         TUSI      to cough
-
-Note that the future active participle would be translated as "about to". LA
-PAROLONTO is "the one who is about to speak", while LA PAROLINTO is "the one
-who spoke", and so forth. For "I am speaking", you could say MI ESTAS
-PAROLANTA, but just about no one ever says it this way; the simple MI
-PAROLAS is much preferred. If you must say "I have spoken", and a simple MI
-PAROLIS just won't do, you can use MI ESTAS PAROLINTA. Note that ESTAS does
-the job of the auxiliary verb "have" there.
-A much more common use of the participles in Esperanto is the adverbial
-form. These expressions are very compact, and often defy precise English
-translation. For example, "About to eat, I heard a sound." would be:
<Man{onte, mi audis sonon.
-Or MANzINTE, for "having eaten..."
-
-Now try: "Having fallen, I was about to cough."
.
>Falinte, mi estis tusonta.
-
-: VENDI     to sell         KREI      to create       MONDO     world
-
-You noticed that the first three participles were introduced as "active"
-participles, because they refer to actions performed. There are also three
-"passive" participles, to refer to actions undergone.
-To re-use an example,
##Man{onte, mi adis ion.# means "About to eat, I heard something."#
-Now consider MANzOTE, MI ADIS ION. The -OT- ending is the passive future
-participle, so the sentence now means, "About to be eaten, I heard some-
-thing."
-An important difference! So, the present passive participle is -AT-, the
-past passive is -IT- and the future passive is -OT-. To say that someone is
-KONATA is to say that he or she is currently known. Therefore, a KONATULO is
-a celebrity. MIA AMATINO is my beloved woman. MANzITA OVO is an eaten egg.
-To say that a house is for sale, we might say that it is AdETEBLA or, more
-optimistically, that it is VENDOTA.
-
-Translate: "Our world is still being created."
.
>Nia mondo estas ankora kreata.
-
-: TRE       very            PAO      step            GRAVA     important
-
-Here are the numbers one to ten:
-1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9     10
<unu,  du,   tri,  kvar, kvin, ses,  sep,  ok,   na,  dek.
-The numbers from eleven to twenty are formed in a very simple and logical
-way: DEK UNU, DEK DU, DEK TRI, DEK KVAR, and so on. The number 20 is DUDEK,
-while 30 is TRIDEK and 40 is KVARDEK. As you would expect from this pattern,
-then, 25 is DUDEK KVIN and 88 is OKDEK OK. One hundred is CENT. One thousand
-is MIL. Thus, the year when Esperanto was first published was MIL OKCENT
-OKDEK SEP. Numbers equaling a million or higher are treated as "measure"
-nouns, and use the preposition DA. So, TRI MILIONOJ DA HOMOJ is "three
-million people".
-The simple ordinal numbers are invariant; no endings are needed. To form
-cardinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.), simply add the regular
-adjectives: UNUA, DUA, TRIA, KVARA... And of course, you can say UNUE, DUE,
-TRIE, etc. where in English we might say "Firstly", "secondly" etc.
-
-Translate: "The first step is very important."
.
>La unua pao estas tre grava.
-
-: DARI     to last, endure HORO      hour            DISKUTI   to discuss
-
-To make fractions, use the suffix -ON-. DUONO is "a half". Of course, fract-
-ions can be used as adjectives or adverbs as well.
-
-Translate: "The discussion lasted a quarter hour."
.
>La diskuto daris kvaronan horon.
-
-: SONO      sound           LATA     loud
-
-To compare adjectives in Esperanto, use the words PLI and PLEJ, which mean
-"more" and "most", respectively. Thus, for "good, better, best", we have
<bona, pli bona, plej bona.
-These words are sometimes seen as parts of compound words, as well.
-A case in point is the English word "improve". In one sense (transitive),
-means "to make better". The Esperanto word is therefore PLIBONIGI. In
-another sense (intransitive), "improve" means "to get better." The Esperanto
-word is PLIBONIzI. The words for "less" and "least" are, of course, MALPLI
-and The word for "than" in expressions such as "more than" and "less than"
-is OL. 
-Please translate: "The sound got louder."
.
>La sono plilati{is.
-
-: KOMENCI   to begin        PRELEGI   to lecture
-
-You already know that ordinal numbers are formed by adding the adjectival
-ending -A to numbers. A similar trick is used to ask what time it is. As we
-have seen the correlative KIOM means "how much". The adjective KIOMA stands
-for a concept that has no direct English counterpart; think of it as an
-ordinal form of "how much", a word that asks about something's position in a
-sequence. So, to ask the time, say KIOMA HORO ESTAS? The answer, logically,
-is also an ordinal. Use ESTAS LA SEPA HORO for "it's seven o'clock". Or just
-say LA SEPA or LA SEPA KAJ DUONO or DEK MINUTOJ POST LA OKA.
-To talk about something happening AT some time, we can't use the preposition
-dE for "at", because it is about space, not time. Instead, we use the "all-
-purpose" preposition, JE.
-
-Translate: "She will begin to lecture at eight thirty."
.
>i komencos prelegi je la oka kaj duono.
-
-: MENSOGI   to lie (tell)   BANKO     bank
-
-When you want to express a tendency or inclination, use the suffix -EM-.
-Where in English we might call someone "talkative", the Esperanto word would
#be #PAROLEMA.##
-Like most other Esperanto affixes, -EM- can also be used as a word in its
-own
#right, meaning "to tend to". So, #i emas ridi# means "She tends to laugh."#
-
-Translate (with suffix): "That banker is inclined to lie."
.
>Tiu bankisto estas mensogema.
-
-: LAVI      to wash         RAZI      to shave        KRURO     leg
-
-The English sentence "He saw a man and his children" is actually ambiguous,
-since it doesn't tell us whose children he saw, his own or the man's. In
-Esperanto, this ambiguity is avoided by the use of the reflexive pronoun SI
-its derivatives.
.
##Li vidis viron kaj liajn infanojn# tells us that it  was  the  man's  children
-that he saw.
##Li vidis viron kaj siajn infanojn# tells us that he saw his own children.#
-SI is also used in reflexive constructions, as in:
##i lavis sin#, for "she washed (herself)".#
-Note that SI is only used in the third person, and only to refer to the
-grammatical subject of the sentence or clause.
-
-SIA must be used whenever the equivalent English sentence could include the
-expression "his own", her own", or "their own". That is, in the English
-sentence "He forgot his (own) name," the word "own" is optional. In the
-Esperanto sentence LI FORGESIS SIAN NOMON, the word SIAN is obligatory.
-
-Translate: "She shall shave her legs."
.
>i razos siajn krurojn.
-
-: ABOMENI   to despise      MUZIKO    music           KOMPONI   to compose
-
-There is a useful ending for expressing one's utter contempt for something.
-It is -AC-. SKRIBAdI, for example, would be "to scribble", while DOMAdO
-would suggest a miserable hovel, a shack. To call someone a VIRAdO or
-HOMAdO would be to call that person a scoundrel, a contemptible individual.
-Used as an adjective, AdA simply means "awful".
-
-Translate (using suffix): "I despise that composer's awful music."
.
>Mi abomenas la muzikaeon de tiu komponisto.
-
-: POLITIKO  politics
-
-The prefix FI- adds the connotation of immorality to the root word. FILIBRO,
-for example, is a pornographic book, while a FIVIRINO suggests a woman of
-ill-repute. FIFAMA means "infamous".
-
-Coin a word that means "immoral politician":
.
>fipolitikisto
-
-: BANI to bathe DEVI to must SERdI to seek, search
-
-The suffix -EJ- denotes a place dedicated to whatever the root word is
-about. A MALSANULEJO, for example, is a place for sick persons, or a
-hospital. Often, rooms in a house are referred to in this way. KUIREJO means
-"cooking-place" or kitchen.
-
-Translate: "I had to search for the bathroom."
.
>Mi devis serei la banejon.
-
-: TRANdI    to cut          BALDA    soon
-
-The suffix -AR- is used to refer to things as a collection. IPO, for
-example, refers to a single ship, but IPARO refers to a fleet. ARBARO is a
-forest, and BUTIKARO might be a shopping mall, a collection of shops.
-
-Translate: "He will soon have to cut his hair."
.
>Li balda devos tranei sian hararon.
-
-: BABILI    to chat         TUTA      whole, entire   NOKTO     night
-
-To express prolonged or repeated action, use the suffix -AD-.
-While NI LABORIS means simple "we worked", NI LABORADIS means "we kept
-on working". It emphasizes the duration of the activity. While PAROLO
-is  any  utterance, PAROLADO is a full-fledged speech, or oration.
-
-Translate: "They went on chatting (during) the whole night."
.
>Ili babiladis dum la tuta nokto.
-
-: SAMA      same            IDEO      idea
-
-The suffix -AN- is used to denote membership. That is a KLUBANO is a member
-a club, while a PARTIANO is a member of a political party. The word ANO is
-seen, but the synonym MEMBRO has also entered the language. Sometimes,
-Esperantists use this concept of membership in ways that might seem odd to
-an English speaker. An ANGLALINGVANO, to take a case in point, is literally
-a "member of the English language", which simple means "an English-speaker".
-
-You should be able to coin the popular Esperanto word for "one who is
-committed to the same idea (as the speaker)":
.
>samideano
-Esperanto speakers refer to other Esperantists by this word.
-
-: SENDI     to send         MESAzO    message         TRA       through
-
-The prefix DIS- has the meaning of scattering, or separation, as it also
-does in such English words as "disband" and "dismantle". Thus, DISDONI means
-"to give out" or distribute. DISMETI is literally "to put apart", but more
-idiomatically "to take apart".
-
-Translate: "The club-members are broadcasting the message through the
-world."
-                                (sending-out)
.
>La klubanoj dissendas la mesa{on tra la mondo.
-Note that TRA already conveys the concept of movement; the noun after it
-does not take an -N.
-
-Now we have arrived at the end of the course. Let's have a look at the over-
-view of the grammar.
.
0
T134
\
^LECIONO 9.
-
.
-And now the Esperanto grammar (with some comments). By the following 16
-rules everything important is covered.
.
-1. There's only one definite article: "la". The indefinite article is
-   expressed by the absence of any article.
.
-2. All nouns end in "o". Plural: append "j". Accusative case: append "n"
-   (in this order).
.
-3. All adjectives end in "a". "j" and "n" are appended according to rule 2.
-   Comparision is expressed by the words "pli" (corresponding to English
-   'more') and "plej" (corresponding to 'most').
.
-4. Numerals are invariable. They are:
-   1     2    3     4      5      6     7     8    9     10    100    1000
>   unu - du - tri - kvar - kvin - ses - sep - ok - na - dek.  cent.  mil.
-   Formation of the numbers greater than 10: To every digit word (unu, du,
-   ...) the place value word (dek, cent, mil) is appended; the words
-   formed in this way are strung together in the order of the digits
-   (written in separate words or with a hyphen).
-   Example:
>   mi\5l na\5cent na\5dek u\5nu.
-   (or "mil-nacent-nadek-unu") - 1991
-   "amba" - 'both' is treated like a numeral. Numbers from a million
-   upwards are nouns.
-   Ordinal numbers are formed by appending an "a"; they are treated like
-   adjectives.
.
-5. Personal / reflexive pronouns:
&mi - ni         I / myself - we / ourselves
&vi              you (singular and plural) / yourself / yourselves
##li - i - {i   # he - she - it
&ili             they
&oni             one, you (meaning an undefined or any person)
&si              (reflexive pronoun 3rd person:
-                himself, herself, itself, themselves, oneself)
.
-6. Verbs end in:
-   "as" in present tense, "is" in past tense, "os" in future tense,
-   "i" in infinitive, "us" in conditional (e.g. "mi dirus" - 'I would
-   say'), "u" in imperative.
-   Active participles end in "anta"/"inta"/"onta" (corresponding to the
-   verb endings "as"/"is"/"os"), passive participles in "ata"/"ita"/"ota".
#   Examples: 'eating' is #man{anta.##
-   Participles are also used for more detailed tense indication and for
-   the passive, e.g.:
>   zi estis man{ita.
-   It had been eaten.
.
-7. Derived adverbs end in "e". Comparision like adjectives. Note rule 13
-   (concerns the expression of direction).
.
-8. After prepositions principally the nominative case is used. If prepos-
-   itions that usually express a location are to express a direction,
-   rule 13 is to be followed.
-9. Every word is read like it's spelt and vice versa.
-10.The stress is always on the last-but-one syllable.
.
-11.Words can be composed by stringing others together with the root at the
-   end. The endings in the middle of the word can be left out.
-12.If there's a negative word in a sentence, there's no extra negation.
-   (This is as in standard English, but unlike slang:
#    'I [don't] see nothing.' - #Mi vidas nenion.#)#
-13.For expressing a direction the ending "n" is used (concerns mainly
-   nouns and adverbs).
-14.The prepositition "je" is used whenever there's no clear meaning,
-   e.g. 'To your health!':
>   Je via sano!
-   It is, however, to be used sparingly (except in time expressions).
.
-15.Foreign words are adapted with regard to spelling, ending and available
-   sounds. For example you know
>*   futbalo.
-16.The ending vowel of nouns and of the article can be left out and re-
-   placed by an apostrophe. (This is common almost only in verses. Only
-   "de l'" is sometimes found elsewhere as well.)
.
-And that's all. Good-bye!
>zis revido!
*
